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IN  MEMORIAM 
BERNARD  MOSES 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  SINCE  1815 


(EXCLUDING  THE  UNITED  STATES). 


A  SYLLABUS  OF  LECTURES 


PREPARED   FOR  USE  IN  THE 


MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY. 


BY 

CHARLES  H.  LEVERMORE,  Ph.  D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  History, 


and 

DAVIS  R.  DEWEY,  Ph.  D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Economics  and  Statistics. 


BOSTON : 
W.  J.  Schofield,  Printer,  105  Summer  Street. 

1889. 


T)3k3 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1889, 
BY  CHARLES  H.  LEVERMORE  AND  DAVIS  R.  DEWEY, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


ntmfM®  WBOTS 


PREFACE. 


This  book  is  intended  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  course  of 
lectures  upon  the  outlines  of  political  history  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  As  used  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  it  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  students,  who 
follow  in  its  pages  the  oral  lectures  upon  the  same  subjects. 
The  lecturer,  feeling  that  his  hearers  already  know  the  skele- 
ton of  his  topic,  is  at  liberty  to  provide  the  flesh,  blood,  and 
life,  wherever  and  however  it  may  seem  best.  The  students 
are  required  also  to  read  selections  from  the  references  and 
from  apposite  articles  in  the  current  reviews  and  magazines, 
and  to  submit  abstracts  of  this  reading,  periodically,  to  the 
instructor.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  refer  to  works  that  are  not  to  be  found  in  a 
comparatively  small  class -library.  No  books  have  been 
quoted  which  are  not  easily  obtainable  at  a  small  cost.  At 
the  same  time,  those  who  are  near  large  libraries  can  readily 
expand  the  reference  work,  if  they  so  desire.  The  individual 
student  into  whose  hands  the  book  may  fall,  and  who  may 
desire  more  comprehensive  guidance,  is  recommended  to 
resort  to  the  bibliographies  of  modern  history  already  pub- 
lished in  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall's  "Methods  of  Teaching 
History''  (2nd  ed.),  and  in  Prest.  Charles  Kendall  Adams's 

"Manual  of  Historical  Literature." 

C.  H.  L. 

D.  R.  D. 

Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  1,  1889. 


887317 


LECTURES. 


Page. 


Introductory  Lecture  :  Races,  Governments, 
and  Religions  of  Men.     .... 
I— II.     England  and  Her  Empire. 

III-IV.     English  Political  Parties 

V.     Canada.     The  Cape  Colony.   . 
VI.     English  Colonies  in  Australasia  and  Poly- 
nesia  

VII.     The  Asiatic  Empire  of  England.     . 

VIII.     China.    Japan 

IX.     The  Russian  Empire 

X-XI.     The  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy. 
XII-XIII.     The    Ottoman    Empire   and    the    Revolted 
Christian  States  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula.   

XIV.     The  Present  Empire  of  the  Ottoman  Turks. 
The  Eastern  Question. 
XV.     German  Confederations  and  the  Growth  of 

Prussia 

XVI.     The  German  Empire,  1871-. 

XVII.     France,  1815-1870 

XVIII.     The  Third  Republic,  1870-. 
XIX.     Italy,  and  the  Struggle  for  Unity.  . 
XX.     Switzerland.    The  Netherlands.    Belgium. 
XXI.     The  Scandinavian  Kingdoms. 
XXII.     The    Iberian   Peninsula:    Portugal   (with 
Brazil).     Spain 

XXIII.  Spanish  America,  or  the  Revolted  Colonies 

of  Spain. 

XXIV.  The  African  Continent.    Colonization  and 

Emigration 112 


1 

8 
18 

27 

32 
34 
41 
45 
49 


57 

69 

72 
78 
81 
86 
90 
95 
98 

101 

107 


BOOKS  FOR  GENERAL  REFERENCE. 


American  Almanac.     1888. 

Barker's  Trade  and  Finance  Manual.     1888. 

Brace.— The  Races  of  the  Old  World. 

Dorchester. — The  Problem  of  Religious  Progress.      New  York, 

1881. 
Ewald. — The    Last   Century    of  Universal  History.      1767-1867. 

London,  1868. 
Freeman. — The  Historical  Geography  of  Europe.    2  vols.    London, 

1882. 
Fyffe. — A  History  of   Modern    Europe.      Vols.  I  and  II.      New 

York,  1887. 
Labberton. —  New  Historical  Atlas.     New  York,  1887. 
Lalor. —  Cyclopaedia   of  Political  Science,  Political  Economy,  and 

United  States  History. 
Latham. — The  Varieties  of  Man.     London,  1850. 
Latham. —  Russian  and  Turk.     London,  1878. 
Lodge. — A  History  of  Modern    Europe.      The    Student's    Series. 

New  York,  1886. 
Hazell's  Annual  Cyclopaedia.     1887,  1888,  1889. 
McCarthy. —  A  History  of  Our  Own  Times, —  from  the  Accession 

of  Queen  Victoria  to  the  General  Election  of  1880.      2  vols. 

New  York. 
Meyer. —  Hand-Lexikon  des  Allgemeinen  Wissens.     Leipzig,  1885. 
Morris. — The  Aryan  Race.     Chicago,  1888. 
Mulhall. — The  Progress  of  the  World.     London,  1880. 
Muller. —  Political  History  of  Recent  Times,  1816-1875.      With 

Special  Reference  to  Germany.     1882. 
Ploetz. —  Epitome   of   Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and    Modern    History. 

Translated,  with   Extensive  Additions,  by  W.  H.  Tillinghast. 

Boston,  1884. 
Putzger. —  Historische  Schul- Atlas.      Bielefeld    und  Leipzig,  Vel- 

hagen  und  Klasing,  1887. 


Vlll 


Sergeant. — The  Government  Year  Book.     1888. 
Stanford. —  Compendium    of    Geography    and   Travel.       London, 
1882.     4  vols.,  namely  : 

Bates. —  Central  and  South  America. 
Johnson. — Africa. 
Keane. — Asia. 
Ramsay. —  Europe. 
Stieler's  Schul-Atlas.     Gotha,  1887. 
The  Statesman's  Year  Book. —  Statistical  and  Historical  Annual 

of  the  States  of  the  Civilized  World.     1888. 
Vincent. —  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates  and  Universal  Information. 
New  York,  1883. 


»        '  '  ,    • 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  SINCE  1815. 


INTRODUCTORY  LECTURE. 


RACES,   GOVERNMENTS,   AND   RELIGIONS   OF  MEN. 

I.  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 

1.  Three  broad,  racial  divisions  of  mankind, —  the  Negro,  the  Mon- 
golian, the  Caucasian. 

"  Topinard  goes  so  far  as  to  divide  man  into  three  distinct  species.  The  first  of  these  is 
the  Mongolian,  distinguished  by  a  brachycephalic  or  short  skull,  by  low  stature,  yellowish 
skin,  broad,  flat  countenance,  oblique  eyes,  contracted  eyelids,  beardless  face,  hair  scanty, 
coarse,  and  round  in  section.  The  second  is  the  Caucasian,  with  moderately  dolichoceph- 
alic or  long  skull,  tall  stature,  fair,  narrow  face,  projecting  on  the  median  line,  hair  and 
beard  abundant,  light  colored,  soft,  and  somewhat  elliptical  in  section.  The  third  species 
is  the  Negro,  with  skull  strongly  dolichocephalic,  complexion  black,  hair  flat  and  rolled 
into  spirals,  face  very  prognathous,  and  with  several  peculiarities  of  bodily  structure  not 
necessary  to  name  here.    Morris :  The  Aryan  Race,  pp.  6,  7. 

a.  The  Negro  includes  — 

African  Negroes,  Bushmen,  and  Hottentots,  Dravidians  of 
India,  Oceanic  Negroes,  or  Melanesians,  the  Negritos,  Pa- 
cific Ilanders,  and  the  Australian  aborigines,  —  the  last  five 
divisions  perhaps  presenting,  in  most  instances,  various  de- 
grees of  mixture  of  Negro  and  Malay  Mongolian  bloods. 

b.  The  Mongolian  includes  — 

Chinese,  Siberian  aborigines,  Tatars,  Turks,  Finns,  Lapps, 
Basques,  Eskimo,  American  Indians  and  Malays  (perhaps 
mixed  races). 

c.  The  Caucasian,  probably  resulting  in  its  present  form,  at 
least,  from  mixture  of  the  other  two,  includes  Hindoos,  Per- 
sians, Semitic  people  of  Asia  Minor,  Arabs  and  people  of 
North  Africa,  all  the  people  of  Europe  except  Turks,  Finns, 
Lapps,  and  Basques.  Name  u  Aryan  "  applied  to  Hindoos, 
Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Kelts,  Teutons,  and  Slavs. 


d.  European  Caucasian, ,  peoples  classified,  by  differences  of 
languages  inio  tar;  nWifc,  divisions  j'-^-  - , .' 

Greek. 

Latin   (Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  and  Rou- 
manian). 
Teutonic  (German,  Dutch,  Scandinavian,  and   English), 
Slavonic  (Russian,  Polish,  Bohemian,  Servians,  Bulgarian). 

e.  Dark  and  fair  Caucasians. 

"  Of  the  two  sub-races  which  make  up  the  Caucasian  stock  of  mankind,  the  Xanthochroi, 
or  fair  white,  are  now  found  most  typically  displayed  in  the  north  of  Europe,  mainly 
in  Denmark,  Scandinavia,  and  Iceland.  The  Melanochroi,  or  dark  whites,  have  their  typ- 
ical region  in  northern  Africa  and  southwestern  Asia.  Between  these  regions  an  intimate 
mixture  of  the  two  types  exists,  endless  intermediate  grades  being  found  ;  though,  as  a 
rule,  the  Xanthochroic  becomes  more  declared  as  we  go  north,  and  the  Melanochroic  as  we 
go  south."    Morris:  The  Aryan  Race,  p.  12. 

"  What,  then,  was  the  origin  of  the  two  Caucasian  sub-races  ?  In  response  to  this  ques- 
tion we  may  propound  the  views  offered  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Jackson,  who  advances  the  theory 
that  the  Semitic  (or,  as  we  prefer  to  consider,  all  the  Melanochroi)  is  really  a  derivative 
from  the  Negro  race;  and  the  Aryan  (or  rather  the  Xanthochroi)  is  a  derivative  from  the 
Mongolian.    Morris :  The  Aryan  Race,  pp.  15, 16. 

II.    GOVERNMENTS. 

1.  All  Aryan  peoples  have  shown  a  tendency  to  organize  a  govern- 
ment with  three  characteristic  features. 

a.  National  chief,  or  King,  with  power  more  or  less  limited. 

b.  Council,  of  nobles,  or  aldermen. 

c.  Assembly  of  the  whole  people,  or  their  representatives. 

2.  Governments  gradually  concentrate  power  upon  the  office  of 
King, —  Despotic  Monarchy  ;  or  upon  the  Council, —  Aristocracy  (not 
now  existent)  ;  or  upon  the  Assembly, — Democracy  ;  or  upon  all  three 
organs  of  government  in  proportion, —  Limited  Monarchy,  Republic, 
and  Federal  nations. 

a.  Despotic  Monarchies.  Power  of  National  Chief  lim- 
ited only  by  force  of  custom  and  public  opinion,  or  by  fear 
of  revolution. 

Russia,China,  Japan,  all  Mohammedan  and  savage  nations. 

b.  Democracies.  Powers  of  government  concentrated  within 
a  parliamentary  body  representing  the  people,  and  controlled 
completely  and  speedily  by  majority  votes  of  that  people. 

France,  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
and  its  Australian,  Canadian,  and  South  African  colonies. 

c.  (1)  Limited  Monarchies.  Fusion  of  hereditary  monar- 
chical principle  with  principle  of  government  by  parliamen- 
tary law  expressed  through  council  and  popular  assembly. 


8 


Belgium,  Holland,  Spain,  Portugal,  Brazil,  Italy,  Greece, 
Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Servia,  Roumania,  Bul- 
garia, and,  in  form,  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  Almost  without  exception,  these  nations  are 
imitating  England  in  the  concentration  of  powers  upon  the 
popular  assembly. 

(2)  Republics.  Fusion  of  same  principles  as  in  (1),  except 
that  hereditary  monarch  is  replaced  by  an  executive  chief 
elected  by  people  for  a  limited  term.  See  "  Federal  Repub- 
lics ";  also,  in  general,  the  republics  of  Central  and  South 
America,  and,  in  form,  France. 

NOTE.— Mexico  and  the  Republics  of  Southern  and  Central  America,  with  exception  of 
Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Republic,  are  Oligarchical  Republics,—  monopoly  of  power 
by  factious  combinations  of  powerful  families  and  interests.  The  five  Central  American 
Republics,  more  nearly  Democracies  than  the  others  in  theory,  are  in  reality  more  nearly 
Despotisms  or  Oligarchies. 

d.  Federations.  Unions  of  states  (which  conform  in  some 
large  measure  to  the  principle  of  government  by  parliamen- 
tary law)  into  one  comprehensive  national  life  under  the 
traditional  governmental  forms  (vide  1,  above).  Separation 
of  organs  of  local  government  from  those  of  national  gov- 
ernment.    May  be  either  monarchical  or  democratic  in  type. 

(1)  Federal  Monarchies.  Austro-Hungary,  and  the 
German  Empire. 

(2)  Federal  Republics.  United  States,  Switzerland, 
Argentine  Republic,  Mexico,  San  Domingo,  Venezuela. 
The  Republic  of  Colombia,  formerly  a  weak  confederation 
under  the  federal  form,  is,  since  1886,  a  centralized  re- 
public with  some  federal  characteristics. 

III.    RELIGIONS. 

1.  Nature  Worship.  Crude  primitive  beliefs  ;  Shinto  religion 
of  Japan  among  the  most  developed. 

2.  Confucianism.  Ancestor-worship,  state  religion  of  China; 
rites  observed  by  all,  even  by  adherents  of  other  religions ;  Buddhists 
and  Taoists  (Mystics)  ;  bulk  of  population  is  Buddhist. 

3.  Brahmanism.  Hindu  religion,  a  social  organization,  and  a 
religious  confederacy.  In  society,  perpetuation  of  castes  ;  in  religion, 
combination  of  cultured  philosophic  faith  of  Brahmans  with  material- 
istic beliefs  of  inferior  races  ;  Brahman  ideal,  a  life  of  ceremonial  pu- 
rity, self-discipline,  and  restraint ;  gradation  of  castes  from  low  to  high. 


Each  caste  is,  in  a  measure,  a  trade  guild,  a  mutual  insurance  society, 
and  a  religious  sect.      W.   W.  Hunter :   The  Indian  Empire. 

4.  Buddhism.  Religion  of  good  works;  mortification  of  the  will 
and  of  bodily  desires.  Monastic  institutions  ;  China,  Japan,  peninsula 
of  Farther  India,  Tibet,  Ceylon,  Cashmere,  Nepaul.  Monier  Wil- 
liams: Hinduism,  72-76. 

5.  Parsee.  The  worship  of  an  Ideal  Good  under  the  image  of 
Light;  sacred  writings,  the  Zend-Avesta.  Scattered  remnants  of 
ancient  Persian  race,  living  for  the  most  part  in  India. 

6.  Islam,  or  Mohammedanism.  Creed,  "  There  is  but  one  God, 
and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet."  Sacred  writings,  the  Koran  ;  sacred 
city,  Mecca  in  Arabia. 

Secular  head  of  Islam,  the  Turkish  Sultan,  the  Caliph  (i.  e.,  fol- 
lower, successor,  of  the  Prophet). 

Ecclesiastical  head  of  Islamism, —  under  the  Caliph,  the  Sheikh- 
ul-Islam,  chief  authority  of  the  Uleraa,  the  men  learned  in  religion 
and  law.     Statesman's  Tear  Book,  523. 

Importance  of  Shereef  of  Mecca, —  head  of  family  of  Mohammed, 
and  Guardian  of  the  Holy  Temple,  the  Caaba,  at  Mecca.  Importance 
of  Ulema  of  Great  Mohammedan  Schools. 

Turkish  Empire,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Russian  Turkestan,  and 
parts  of  Siberia,  China,  southeastern  part  of  European  Russia,  parts 
of  India,  states  of  northern  and  central  Africa,  and  of  the  east  coast 
of  Africa. 

Principal  divisions  : 

a.  Soonees,  subjects  of  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa.  Accept  the  Soonah,  or  oral  traditions,  in  addition 
to  the  Koran,  and  pay  equal  honors  to  all  Caliphs  after  Mo- 
hammed.    Stobart:  Islam  and  its  Founder,  197-199. 

b.  Sheeah,  subjects  of  Persian  Empire,  found  also  in  India, 
Turkey,  and  the  Soudan.  Number  about  20,000,000.  Re- 
ject the  Soonah,  and  regard  Ali,  the  fourth  Caliph (656-661), 
as  the  rightful  successor  of  Mohammed.     Stobart,  199,  200. 

c.  Wahahbees,  people  of  Nejd,  State  in  the  center  of  the  Ara- 
bian peninsula,  founded  about  1750.  Reject  all  modern 
innovations  and  influences,  and  aim,  first,  at  the  revival  of 
the  exact  beliefs  and  customs  of  primitive  Islam  ;  later,  at 
unity  and  independence  of  Arabia.  Political  power  broken 
in  1819.     Stobart,  202. 


d.  Sultan  of  Morocco  (lineal  descendant  of  Ali)  and  his  subjects  adopt  as  a  text- 
book of  faith  a  commentary  on  the  Koran  by  Sidi  Bokhari. 

e.  Sufis,  Mystics  ;  in  India  and  Persia.     Stobart,  201. 

7.  Judaism.  Religion  of  the  Jews.  Monotheism  its  principle. 
Doctrines  of  "  a  chosen  people,"  and  of  a  future  restoration  to  Pales- 
tine. Sacred  writings,  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.    Sacred  city,  Jerusalem.     Found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

8.  Christianity.  Origins  of  creed  in  Judaism,  and  in  ancient 
Greek  philosophy ;  doctrine  of  the  Messiah  ;  creed,  Apostles'  creed 
(see  Book  of  Common  Prayer);  sacred  writings,  books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  excluding  the  Apocrypha. 

a.  The  Eastern  Christian  Church.  Constantinople,  relig- 
ious capital ;  principal  divisions  follow  national  lines,  com- 
prising the  most  ancient  forms  of  Christian  organization,  as 
follows  :  — 

(1)  The  Orthodox  Greek  Church.  Absence  of  cen- 
tralized hierarchical  authority  ;  parochial  clergy  married; 
monastic  orders  ;  five  patriarchates,  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Moscow  [vide  (2),  below]  ; 
found  in  Greece.  European  Turkey,  Georgia,  and  Asia 
Minor.      Stanley:  History  of  Eastern  Church,  4-17 '. 

(2)  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia.  Offshoot  of 
Greek  church  ;  Czar  supreme  in  church  as  in  state  ;  office 
of  Patriarch  abolished  by  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  Holy 
Synod  substituted  therefor  ;  beliefs  and  usages  same  in 
general  as  those  of  the  Greek  church.  Number  of  dis- 
senting communions, —  the  most  considerable  known  as 
"  Starovers,"  or  Old  Believers,  more  conservative  than 
the  National  Church.  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Monte- 
negro is  closely  affiliated  with  the  Russian  Church. 

Found  in  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  the  established 
church  of  the  Russian  nation.     Wallace  :  Russia,  426-434. 

(3)  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Bulgaria.    Offshoot  of  Greek  Church. 

Orthodox  Churches  of  Slavonic  peoples  under  the  rule  of  Hungary  are 
affiliated  with  groups  (3),  (4),  and  (5). 

(4)  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Servia.    Offshoot  of  Bulgarian  Church. 

(5)  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Roumania.    Offshoot  of  Bulgarian  Church. 

(6)  Chaldean  or  Nestorian  Christians,  in  Kurdistan, 
on  the  western  borders  of  Persia. 

Admit  authority  of  first  two  general  councils  of  the  primitive  Christian 
Church;  reject  the  third  because  that  council  condemned  NeBtorianism,  a 
dispute  about  the  nature  of  Jesus. 


6 


(7)  The  Armenian  Church,  in  Armenia,  and  scattered 
throughout  the  northern  part  of  Turkish  empire. 

Patriarchate  of  Etchmiazin,  in  Armenia,  their  sacred  city.  Reject  author- 
ity of  one  out  of  the  seven  ancient  general  councils  of  the  Christian  Church. 

(8)  Church  of  Syria,  or  Jacobite  Church. 

Admit  authority  of  first  three  general  councils  only.  Differ  from  Greek 
Church  concerning  nature  of  Jesus.  Patriarchate  of  Diarbekir;  Sacred 
City,  Antioch.  The  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  in  India,  are  classed  with  (7) 
and  (8). 

(9)  Church  op1  Egypt,  or  Coptic  Church.  Descrip- 
tion same  as  for  (7)  ;  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  head  of 
church,  lives  at  Cairo. 

(10)  Church  of  Abyssinia.  Offshoot  of  Church  of  Egypt 
and  stands  with  it ;  beliefs  and  usages  more  like  those  of 
ancient  Jews  than  those  of  any  other  Christian  church. 

(11)  Melchites.  Name  applied  to  churches  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Egypt  which  remain  faithful  to  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church,  and  are  not  affiliated  with  the  National  Churches 
of  Syria,  Egypt,  Armenia,  etc. 

The  Roman  Christian  Church.  Developed  in  16th 
century,  out  of  mediaeval  European  Church,  which  had  grad- 
ually separated  from  Eastern  Christian  Church,  between 
the  8th  and  the  12th  centuries  of  our  era.  Rome,  the 
religious  capital.  Strongly  centralized  hierarchical  admin- 
istration of  the  Church  culminating  in  unlimited  ecclesiastical 
power  of  Bishop  of  Rome,  or  Pope.  Dogma  of  papal  infal- 
libility. Clerical  celibacy.  Monastic  orders.  Predomi- 
nance of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  commonly  called  "Jesuits." 

Found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Strongest  in  Italy, 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Belgium,  Ireland,  Poland,  Bohe- 
mia, Austria,  and  the  nations  of  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica.     Divisions  not  assimilated  : 

(1)  The  Maronites,  an  ancient  division  of  the  Eastern 
Christian  Church,  belonging  to  the  Syrian  Church,  and 
inhabiting  Mt.  Lebanon.  In  the  12th  century  (1181), 
attached  to  the  Romish  Church.  Use  an  ancient  ritual 
of  their  own.  Inferior  clergy  allowed  to  marry.  Found 
also  in  Egypt  and  Cyprus. 

(2)  Melchites.  Some  of  the  Melchites,  though  using  the 
Greek  rite,  profess  obedience  to  Rome. 

(3)  United  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Ruthenians,  Chaldeans 
(Nestorians),  Copts,  Armenians,  and  Roumanians.     Sec- 


tions  of  the  larger  divisions  of  the  Eastern  Church,  which 
have  professed  obedience  to  Rome.     The  local  rites  are 
used.     In  some,  clergy  are  married,   and  communion  is 
allowed  to  the  laity.     Service  of  United  Roumanians  is 
in  the  language  oi  the  people,  the  only  instance  of  the 
kind  in  the  Roman  Church. 
c.  The  Protestant  Christian  Church.     Principally  de- 
veloped in  the  16th  century,  from  the  mediaeval  European 
Church.     Luther   and   Calvin.     Essential   principle,  asser- 
tion  of   the  independence  of   the  individual    judgment  in 
deciding  questions  relating  to  faith  and  morals.     Absence 
of  uniform  organization  for  church  government.     Principal 
divisions  indicate  common  preferences  for  methods  of  action 
or  expressions  of  belief. 

Found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Strongest  in  Germany, 
Holland,  Denmark,  Switzerland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Great 
Britain  and  colonies,  and  the  United  States. 

Classified  according  to  modes  of  church  government,  the 
principal  divisions  are  — 

(1)  Episcopal,  hierarchical  government,  including  — 

(a)  The  Anglican  Church,  the  Established  Church  of 
England,  and  its  representative  in  the  United  States, 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

(b)  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  found  mainly  among 
English-speaking  peoples.  Originated  in  a  great  relig- 
ious revival  of  the  18th  century,  in  England. 

(c)  The  Unitas  Fratrum,  or  Moravians,  dating  from  the 
early  Reformation  period,  and  found  in  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States. 

(2)  Congregational,  each  church  self-governing,  includ- 
ing— 

Baptists  ;  immersion,  a  necessary  mode  of  baptism. 
Congregationalists,  including  Unitarians  andUniversalists. 
Friends,  commonly  called  Quakers. 
Methodists. 

Waldenses,  and  the  Free  Church  of  Italy,  Italian  Prot- 
estants. 

(3)  Presbyterian,  a  system  of  parliamentary  church  gov- 
ernment, without  bishops,  including  — 

Presbyterians,  including  the  Established  Church  in  Scot- 
land. 


8 

Lutherans  and  Reformed  (Calvinist).  Most  of  the  Prot- 
estants of  Germany,  Scandinavia,  Holland,  Switzer- 
land, and  France ;  the  Consistory  ;  Lutherans  strong 
also  in  the  United  States. 

Methodists. 

Mennonites,  Russian  Protestants. 

Total  number  of  Christians,  about  420  millions.  Roman  Christians,  about  200  m.  ;  esti- 
mates vary  from  152  m.  to  218  m.  Protestant  Christians,  about  120  m.  ;  estimates  vary 
from  115  m.  to  130  m.  Eastern  Christians,  about  100  m.  Buddhists,  about  450  m.  Brah- 
manist  Hindus,  about  190  m.  Mohammedans,  more  than  200  m.  Parsees,  about  85,000. 
Jews,  about  8  m. 


LECTURES    I-II. 


ENGLAND  AND  HUH  EMPIRE. 

References:  Acland  and  Ransome:  Political  History  of  England 
to  1887;  London,  1888.  Amos:  The  Science  of  English 
Politics,  International  Scientific  Series,  London,  1883.  Bright: 
History  of  England,  vols,  iii,  iv ;  London,  1888.  Buxton: 
The  Imperial  Parliament  Series,  8  vols. ;  London,  1885. 
Especially,  Baxter:  England  and  Russia.  Lome:  Imperial 
Federation.  Lubbock:  Representation.  Richard  and  Wil- 
liams: Disestablishment.  English  Citizen  Series,  13  vols.; 
London,  1883.  Especially,  Chalmers:  Local  Government. 
Traill:  Central  Government.  Walpole :  Electorate  and  the 
Legislature.  Walpole:  Foreign  Relations.  Fielden:  A  Short 
Constitutional  History  of  England;  London,  1882.  McCar- 
thy :  A  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  from  the  Accession  of 
Queen  Victoria  to  the  General  Election  of  1880,  2  vols. ; 
New  York.  Mc  Carthy :  The  Epoch  of  Reform,  Epochs  of 
Modern  History  Series.  Ward:  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria; 
A  Survey  of  Fifty  Years  of  Progress  ;  2  vols. ;  London,  1887. 

1.  Component  parts  of  the  English  Empire. 

a.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  includ- 
ing England,  Wales,  Scotland  and  outlying  Hands,  Ireland. 

b.  The  Hand  (kingdom)  of  Man. 


9 


c.  The  Channel  Hands  (Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney,  Sark). 
Area  of  a,  b,  and  c,  120,832  sq.  mi.  A  little  smaller  than 
the  territory  of  New  Mexico.  Population,  37,000,000. 
Density,  303  to  the  sq.  mi. 

d.  Colonies  and  Dependencies. 

General  References:  Cotton  and  Payne :  Colonies  and  Depend- 
encies. E.  J.  Payne  :  European  Colonies.  Colonial  Policy 
and  Progress  in  The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  403-559. 
C.  S.  Salmon :  The  Crown  Colonies  of  Great  Britain.  C.  P. 
Lucas  :  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies. 
1.  Geographical  distribution  of  English  colonies. 

For  full  list   with   date    of  acquisition,  etc.,  see  Statesman's 
Tear  Book,  286-289,  and  Hazell  under  British  Empire. 

Asia 1.84  m.  sq.  miles  ;  261  m.  popul. 

Africa 45  m.  sq.  miles  ;       2.8  m.  M 

America  .  .  .     3.64  m.  sq.  miles;       6.2  m.  " 
Australasia    .    3.26  m.  sq.  miles;       3.6  m.  M 
Europe  (Gibraltar, 
Malta,  Heligoland)  119  sq.miles  ;    177,000  u 


Total,         9.19  m.  sq.  mi.        273.6  m.  popul. 
e.  Estimate  of  total  figures  for  the  whole  empire  and  its  de- 
pendencies, based  generally  on  census  of  1881  :  — 
Area,  over  9  m.  sq.  miles.     Popul.,  320  m. 
Revenue,  £208  m.     Public  debt,  £1,047,951,000. 

2.     The  Central  Government. 

I.  The  Crown. 

•'  Although  Parliamentary  Government  has  existed  since  the  Revo- 
lution of  1688,  the  Crown  has  retained  much  of  its  influence,  owing 
to  its  position  as  the  head  of  society,  to  its  powers  of  patronage,  and 
to  that  love  of  monarchy  which  is  characteristic  of  the  English  peo- 
ple. The  Sovereign  has  at  present  many  legal  prerogatives,  most 
of  which  are  practically  vested  in  the  ministry,  such  as  the  power  of 
summoning,  proroguing,  and  dissolving  Parliament  at  pleasure,  of 
refusing  assent  to  any  bill,  of  making  peace  or  war,  of  dealing  with 
foreign  nations  by  making  treaties,  and  receiving  aud  sending  ambas- 
sadors, of  pardoning  offenders  after  conviction,  and  of  creating  peers. 
Many  of  the  feudal  and  fiscal  prerogatives  of  the  Crown,  such  as 
purveyance,  coining,  regulation  of  markets,  and  the  like,  have  been 
surrendered.     The  Sovereign  is,  in  fact,  the  head  of  the  Church,  the 


10 


army,  and  the  law,  the  fountain  of  justice,  mercy  and  honor,  and  has, 
formally  at  any  rate,  the  supreme  executive  power,  as  well  as  a  co- 
ordinate legislative  power  with  the  Houses  of  Lords  and  Commons." 
Feilden,  26. 

a.  Separation  of    England  from    Hanover,  1837.     Crown  of 
Hanover  not  to  be  inherited  by  a  woman. 

b.  Annual  expense  of  royal  establishment :  — 

Queen  Victoria  receives  from  Treasury  £385,000  per 
year,  £60,000  to  her  own  purse,  £325,000  for  salaries, 
pensions,  alms,  and  general  expenses. 

Queen  Victoria  receives  from  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster 
about  £45,000  per  year,  and  for  pensions  £1200. 

Prince  of  Wales  receives  from  Treasury  £40,000  per 
year,  and  from  Duchy  of  Cornwall  about  £65,000. 

The  Princess  of  Wales  receives  from  the  Treasury 
£10,000  per  year. 

Annuities  are  paid  to  surviving  descendants  of  George 
III,  to  children  of  Victoria,  and  to  wives  or  husbands  of 
these  children.  Amount  uncertain  ;  estimated  about  £150,- 
000. 

The  Financial  Reform  Almanac  for  1884  estimates  total 
payments  in   one  year  to    and    for  the    Royal    Family  at 
£886,973,  and  for  Royal  Parks  and  Pleasure  Grounds  at 
£114,823  in  addition  per  annum. 
II.  The  Cabinet. 

"  It  is  theoretically  an  inner  circle  of  the  Privy  Council,  though 
practically  distinct  from  it,  but,  as  a  body,  is  not  recognized  by  the  law, 
its  members  deriving  their  position  from  the  fact  of  their  being  mem- 
bers of  the  Council.  It  was  natural  for  the  Sovereign  to  select  cer- 
tain members  of  the  Council  as  his  more  trusted  and  confidential 
advisers,  and  as  early  as  the  time  of  Charles  I.  we  find  the  actual 
name,  Cabinet  Council,  in  use.  Under  the  present  system  of  minis- 
terial government,  '  the  Ministry  is  in  fact  a  committee  of  leading 
members  of  the  two  Houses.  It  is  nominated  by  the  Crown,  but  it 
consists  exclusively  of  statesmen  whose  opinions  on  the  passing  ques- 
tions of  the  time  agree  in  the  main  with  the  opinions  of  the  majority 
of  the  House  of  Commons.'  At  the  present  time  ministers  do  not 
wait  to  be  dismissed,  as  in  the  last  century,  but  resign  together,  and 
the  Executive  is  now  so  closely  connected  with  Parliament  as  to 
represent  the  nation,"     Feilden,  44-46. 


11 

"  The  most  curious  point  about  the  cabinet  is  that  so  little  is  known  about  it.  The  meet- 
ings are  not  only  secret  in  theory,  but  secret  in  reality.  By  the  present  practice  no  official 
minute  in  all  ordinary  cases  is  kept  of  them.  Even  a  private  note  is  discouraged  and  dis- 
liked. The  House  of  Commons,  even  in  its  most  inquisitive  and  turbulent  moments,  would 
scarcely  permit  a  note  of  a  cabinet  meeting  to  be  read.  No  minister  who  respected  the 
fundamental  usages  of  political  practice  would  attempt  to  read  such  a  note.  The  committee 
which  unites  the  law-making  power  to  the  law-executing  power  — which  by  virtue  of  that 
combination  is,  while  it  lasts  and  holds  together,  the  most  powerful  body  in  the  state  —  is 
a  committee  wholly  secret.  No  description  of  it,  at  once  graphic  and  authentic,  has  ever 
been  given.  It  is  said  to  be  sometimes  like  a  rather  disorderly  board  of  directors,  where 
many  speak  and  few  listen,  though  no  one  knows."    Bagehot:  English  Constitution,  82. 

a.  The  present  Cabinet  consists  of  :  — 

1.  Prime  Minister,  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  ; 

2.  Lord  High  Chancellor  ; 

3.  Lord  President  of  the  Council ; 

4.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  ; 

5.  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department ; 

6.  Secretary  of  State  for  War ; 

7.  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  ; 

8.  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies ; 

9.  Secretary  of  State  for  India  ; 

10.  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  ; 

11.  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  ; 

12.  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland; 

13.  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster; 

14.  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  ; 

15.  Secretary  for  Scotland  ; 
Occasional  members  are  — 

16.  Lord  Privy  Seal  (office  sometimes  joined  to  that  of  Post- 
master-General) ; 

17.  President  of  Local  Government  Board; 

18.  First  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  and  Buildings. 

b.  How  chosen. 

«*  On  the  resignation  or  dismissal  of  a  previous  ministry,  it  is  customary  for  the  sove- 
reign to  'send  for'  some  eminent  member  of  one  or  other  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament, 
and  to  entrust  him  with  the  task  of  forming  a  new  administration.  It  is  his  duty  to  select 
such  minister-designate  from  the  ranks  of  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and, 
further,  perhaps  (though  this  is  a  point  on  which  some  latitude  of  choree  must  naturally 
and  necessarily  exist),  to  fix  upon  that  one  of  two  or  more  eligible  candidates  for  the  trust 
who  may  appear  the  most  likely  to  be  acceptable  to  the  majority  of  the  party  to  which  he 
belongs.  But  with  the  designation  of  this  one  person  the  initiative  of  the  sovereign  is  at  an 
end.  According  to  modern  usage  the  Premier  alone  is  the  direct  choice  of  the  crown,  and 
he  possesses  the  privilege  of  choosing  his  own  colleagues,  subject  of  course  to  the  appro- 
bation of  the  sovereign.  In  the  exercise  of  this  privilege  the  Prime  Minister  then  proceeds, 
either  with  or  without  consultation  with  other  leading  members  of  his  party,  to  nominate 
the  persons  to  be  appointed  to  the  various  executive  offices.  The  whole  number  of  persons 
thus  nominated  are  in  strictness  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  Ministers,  while  those  ap- 
pointed to  the  more  important  of  these  offices  compose,  either  exclusively,  or  with  one  or 
two  additions,  what  is  called  the  Cabinet*    It  is  to  this  latter  and  smaller  body  that  the  office 


12 


of  advising  the  Crown  is  confined.  They,  and  they  alone,  are  in  the  exact  sense  of  the 
words  '  The  Government'  of  the  country.  The  Cabinet  Minister  is,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
'  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council,'  and  advises  the  Sovereign,  according  to  legal  theory,  in  his 
capacity  of  Privy  Councillor  alone,  while  that  council  itself  at  present  takes  no  part  what- 
ever in  this  duty  of  giving  advice,  nor  is  in  any  way  responsible  for  the  advice  given  by 
those  particular  Privy  Councillors  who  form  the  Cabinet."  Traill:  Central  Government, 
11-13. 

c.  Responsibility  to  Parliament. 

(1)  Censure  and  dismissal  from  office. 

(2)  Impeachment. 

d.  Functions  of  the  different  members. 

(1)  The  Prime  Minister  or  Premier. 

"  There  is  no  such  official  known  to  the  language  of  constitutional 
law  as  a  '  Prime  Minister.'  Supreme  as  is  the  authority  which  the 
so-called  '  Premier  '  has  in  course  of  time  established  over  his  col- 
leagues, and  complete  as  is  their  subordination  to  him,  he  is  in  theory- 
only  one  among  other  ministers  of  the  Crown,  and  his  sole  official 
title  is  derived  from  the  department  over  which  he  nominally  pre- 
sides. This  department  is  usually  the  Treasury,  and  the  office  of 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  has  been  held  by  the  Prime  Minister, 
either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  another,  ever  since  the  year  1806." 
Traill  31. 

The  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  should  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  Marquis  of 
Salisbury,  the  present  Premier,  is  a  Peer,  and  must  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords.  When  he 
first  became  Premier,  in  November,  1885,  he  joined  the  Premiership  to  the  Secretaryship 
for  Foreign  Affairs,  which  office  he  now  holds. 

(2)  The  Treasury  Board. 

"  The  full  official  description  of  the  persons  who  constitute  this 
Board  is  that  of  '  Lords  Commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of 
Lord  High  Treasurer,'  the  said  persons  being  the  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  three  other  officials 
known  as  'Junior  Lords.'  The  Treasury  is  still  a  Board  of  Com- 
missioners in  name,  and  the  patent  under  which  the  members  of  the 
Board  are  appointed  still  represents  them  as  being  of  equal  authority, 
with  powers  to  any  two  or  more  of  them  to  discharge  the  functions 
of  the  whole.  But  the  Treasury  has  long  since  ceased  to  be  a  Board 
in  anything  but  name :  it  is  now  practically  a  department  presided 
over  by  a  single  head,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer."     Traill,  32. 

Of  this  Board  only  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  are,  at  present,  members  of  the  Cabinet. 

(3)  Secretaries  of  State. 

"  Constitutionally  speaking,  there  is  but  one  Secretary  of  State ; 
for  the  five  ministers  who  divide  among  them  the  departmental  func- 
tions are  all  of  co-equal  and  co-ordinate  dignity,  all  fully  authorized  to 


13 

transact,  if  need  be,  each  other's  business,  all  equally  competent  to 
discharge  those  specific  duties  to  the  Sovereign  which  belonged  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  when  as  yet  there  was  only  one.  Thus  they  are 
the  only  authorized  channels  whereby  the  royal  pleasure  is  signified 
to  any  part  of  the  body  politic,  whether  at  home  or  abroad,  and  any 
one  of  them  may  be  empowered  to  carry  the  Sovereign's  commands 
at  any  time  to  any  person.  The  counter-signature  of  a  Secretary  of 
State  is  necessary  to  the  validity  of  the  sign-manual,  and  this  coun- 
ter-signature may  be  attached  by  any  one  of  those  five  ministers. 
The  Secretaries  of  State  were  formerly  resident  in  the  royal  house- 
hold, and  it  is  still  the  practice  for  one  of  them  to  attend  the  Queen 
during  her  occasional  visits  to  parts  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  a  rule, 
moreover,  that  one  of  them  must  always  be  present  in  the  metropolis. 
They  all  have  necessarily  seats  in  the  Cabinet ;  and,  necessarily,  they 
are  members  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  sit  in  one  or  other  of  the 
Houses  of  Parliament.  The  Secretaries  of  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Colo- 
nies, and  India,  are  appointed  indifferently  from  either  House.  The 
Secretary  of  War,  however,  has  now  for  some  years  been  selected 
from  the  House  of  Commons,  and  an  unbroken  usage  of  nearly  half 
a  century  has  confined  the  Home  Secretaryship  to  the  popular  Cham- 
ber."     'Traill,  60,  61. 

(4)  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
"  The  government  of  Ireland  is  formally  vested  in  a  Viceroy,  usu- 
ally styled  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  in  abbreviation  of  his  full  official 
title  of  '  Lord  Lieutenant-General  and  General-Governor  of  Ireland.' 
He  is  assisted  by  a  Privy  Council,  consisting  of  fifty  or  sixty  mem- 
bers, whose  sanction,  like  that  of  the  English  Privy  Council,  is  neces- 
sary to  give  validity  to  many  of  the  official  acts  of  the  Executive. 
The  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  possesses  nominally  very  extensive 
powers,  but  his  actual  freedom  in  their  exercise  is  by  no  means  com- 
mensurate with  their  ostensible  extent.  He  acts  under  instruction 
from  the  Crown,  conveyed  to  him  by  the  ministry  for  the  time  being, 
whose  business  '  is  to  direct  him  in  his  proceedings,  and  to  animad- 
vert upon  his  conduct  if  they  see  him  act  improperly,  or  in  a  manner 
detrimental  or  inconvenient  to  the  public  service,  or  displeasing  to 
the  Crown.'  The  Cabinet  Minister,  ordinarily  responsible  for  advis- 
ing and  directing  the  conduct  of  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  was  at  one 
time  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department;  and  it  is 
presumed  that  theoretically  the  responsibility  still  attaches  to  him. 
But  in  practice  it  has  now  devolved  wholly,  and,  considering  his  sub- 
ordinate title,  somewhat  anomalously,  on  a  functionary  whose  strict 


14 

official  style  is  that  of  '  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant.'  The 
Secretary  for  Ireland,  as  he  is  popularly  called,  has,  since  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Irish  Parliament,  become  essentially  the  Prime  Minister 
of  the  Viceroy.  He  wields  great  powers,  which  he  is  sometimes 
called  upon  to  exercise  without  communication  with  his  chief,  and  he 
is  the  minister  responsible  to  Parliament  for  every  act  of  the  Irish 
administration.  He  is  invariably  a  Privy  Councillor,  and  has  always, 
at  least  of  late  years,  been  a  member  of  the  lower  branch  of  the 
Legislature  ;  and  the  increasing  frequency  with  which  this  part  has  in 
modern  practice  been  associated  with  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet  is  a  testi- 
mony to  its  augmented  importance,  and  a  proof  of  its  virtual  inde- 
pendence of  the  control  of  the  Home  Secretary."       Traill,  78-80. 

(o)  The  Foreign  Secretary. 
"  The  Foreign  Secretary  is  the  official  organ  and  adviser  of  the 
Crown  in  its  intercourse  with  foreign  powers,  and  upon  him  devolves 
the  duty  of  conducting  those  international  negotiations  upon  the  suc- 
cess of  which  the  most  vital  interests  of  his  country,  or  of  Europe  at 
large,  may  on  occasion  depend.  In  affairs  of  this  high  moment  the 
general  line  of  policy  to  be  pursued  would,  of  course,  be  settled  by 
the  Cabinet  collectively  ;  but  the  execution  of  the  particular  plans 
agreed  upon  must  be  largely  left  in  his  hands,  and  according  to  the 
amount  of  tact  and  address  displayed  by  him  in  directing  it,  the  min- 
isterial policy  may  to  a  great  extent  be  made  or  marred."      Traill,  78. 

(6)  The  Leader  of  the  House. 
The  office  of  Leader  of  the  House  falls  to  some  member  of  the 
Cabinet,  who  directs  the  Parliamentary  action  of  the  partisans  of  the 
Government,  and  in  concert  with  the  Speaker  of  the  House  exercises 
important  control  over  the  duration  of  debates.  This  honor  is  held 
by  the  Premier,  if  he  sits  in  the  Commons,  but  if  he  is  in  the  other 
House  it  is  usually  given  to  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  or  the 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  or  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury. 

"  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  no  constitutional  topic  has  attracted  more  attention  of 
late  yeare  than  that  of  the  true  relation  between  the  Ministers  of  the  Crown  and  Parlia- 
ment. In  the  first  place,  this  relation  is,  by  its  nature,  of  the  most  subtle  kind,  and  sets  at 
defiance  any  attempt  at  legal  definition.  In  the  second  place,  no  analogy  or  precedent  for 
the  character  of  the  relation,  as  it  exists  in  England  at  the  present  day,  is  supplied  by  the 
experience  of  any  other  country.  In  other  countries  the  Ministers  of  the  Crown  occupy 
a  position  either  outside  the  representative  Assemblies,  as  in  the  United  States  ;  or  in 
only  casual  and  desultory  connection  with  them,  as  under  even  such  free  Constitutions  as 
those  of  France  and  Italy  ;  or  one  which  is  practically  adverse  to  the  representative  Assem- 
blies, in  reference  to  which  the  Ministers  merely  personate  the  competing  and  conspicu- 
ously jealous  attitude  of  the  Crown,— a  state  of  things  which  seems  to  be  represented  in 
the  German  Empire."      Sheldon  Amos :  Fifty  Years  of  the  English  Constitution,  p.  336. 

"  The  Opposition  Party  has  now  its  recognized  leader,  who  is  the  organ  of  communica- 
tion, for  all  purposes  of  arrangement  and  simplification  of  public  business,  with  the  leader 


15 


of  the  Government,  that  is,  the  leader  of  the  House.  The  Opposition  recognizes,  equally 
with  the  party  in  power,  the  duty  of  loyalty  to  the  clearly-ascertained  will  of  its  own  major- 
ity, or  to  the  dictates  of  its  chief,  as  presumably  expressing  that  will  ;  and  of  faithfully 
submitting  to  all  the  compromises  or  adjustments  of  business  which  its  own  chief,  in  con- 
cert with  the  leader  of  the  House,  shall  make  from  time  to  time,  in  furtherance  of  such 
ends  as  that  of  deciding,  satisfactorily,  complex  issues  between  the  rival  parties,  and  of 
determining  whether  the  party  in  power  continues  to  possess,  on  some  or  on  all  topics,  the 
confidence  of  the  majority  of  the  House.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  the  duty  and  habit 
of  the  Opposition  to  do  its  utmost  to  expose  the  shortcomings  of  the  Government,  and 
in  fact  to  be  the  organ  of  the  House  itself,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the  Government 
to  acknowledge  the  rights  and  claims  of  the  House,  and  that  thereby  an  irritating  hostility, 
sometimes  of  a  most  acrimonious  and  embittered  sort,  is  engendered, —  the  existence  and 
nurture  of  the  relations  just  adverted  to  between  the  Opposition  and  the  party  in  power 
have  the  effect  of  producing  an  extraordinary  amount  of  unity  of  spirit  and  general  co- 
operation between  the  House  itself  and  the  Government.  The  Government  seems  to  the 
House  to  be,  and  is,  the  direct  product  and  continuing  creature  of  its  own  highest  and 
most  intense  organization."     Sheldon  Amos,  pp.  341,  342. 

III.  The  Parliament. 
a.  House  of  Lords. 

(1)  In  1886  this  was  composed  of  — 

5  Peers  of  the  Blood  Royal,         29  Viscounts, 

2  Archbishops,  24  Bishops, 

22  Dukes,  285  Barons, 

20  Marquesses,  16  Scottish  representative  Peers, 

118  Earls,  28  Irish  representative  Peers. 

(2)  These  hold  their  seats  :  — 

(a)  By  virtue  of  hereditary  right ; 

(b)  By  creation  of  the  Sovereign  ; 

(c)  By  virtue  of  office, —  English  Bishops  ; 

(d)  By  election  for  life, —  Irish  Peers  ; 

(e)  By   election   for  duration   of   Parliament, —  Scot- 

tish Peers. 

(3)  Its  Powers. 

"  From  the  Reform  Act  the  function  of  the  House  of  Lords  has  been  altered  in  English 
history.  Before  that  Act  it  was,  if  not  a  directing  chamber,  at  least  a  chamber  of  directors. 
The  leading  nobles,  who  had  most  influence  in  the  Commons,  and  swayed  the  Commons, 
sat  there.  Aristocratic  influence  was  so  powerful  in  the  House  of  Commons  that  there 
never  was  any  serious  breach  of  unity.  When  the  Houses  quarrelled,  it  was,  as  in  the  great 
Aylesbury  case,  about  their  respective  privileges,  and  not  about  the  national  policy.  The 
influence  of  the  nobility  was  then  so  potent  that  it  was  not  necessary  to  exert  it.  Since  the 
Reform  Act  the  House  of  Lords  has  become  a  revising  and  suspending  house.  It  can  alter 
bills  ;  it  can  reject  bills  on  which  the  House  of  Commons  is  not  yet  thoroughly  in  earnest,— 
upon  which  the  nation  is  not  yet  detei-mined.  Their  veto  is  a  sort  of  hypothetical  veto. 
They  say,  we  reject  your  bill  for  this  once,  or  these  twice,  or  even  these  thrice,  but  if  you 
keep  on  sending  it  up,  at  last  we  won't  reject  it."    Bagehot:  English  Constitution,  99. 

"  In  theory  it  has  a  coordinate  power  with  the  King,  and  the 
House  of  Commons  ;  practically,  it  does  not  initiate  important  meas- 
ures, but  confines  itself  to  amending  and  revising  Bills  sent  up  from 
the  Commons  ;  it  is   thus  a  most  useful  check  on  hasty  legislation, 


16 


whilst  on  a  matter  on  which  the  nation  has  really  made  up  its  minds 
the  Lords  are  compelled  to  yield,  e.  g.,  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832.  It 
has  the  sole  power  of  initiating  Bills  relating  to  the  peerage,  but  can- 
not initiate  or  amend  a  money  Bill."     Feilden,  126. 

b.  House  of  Commons,  670  members,  composed  of  — 

(a)  Knights  of  the  shire,  representing  counties  (377). 

(b)  Burgesses,  representing  boroughs  (284). 

(c)  Representatives  of  Universities  (9). 

c.  Parliament  is  summoned  by  the  Crown  ;  new  Parliament 

in  seven  years. 
3.  Iland  of  Man. 

Manx  people  are  distinct  Keltic  nationality.     Last  kings  of  Man 

were  Dukes  of  Athole,  who  sold  their  revenues  in  1765,  but  did  not 

give  up  entire  rights  until  1825,  since  which  time  only  has  Man  been 

a  dependency  of  the  British  crown.    Area,  220  sq.  mi.,  popul.,  54,000. 

a.  Government,  home  rule,  consisting  of  Lieut.-Governor,  and 

an  elected  Parliament  known  as  the  Tynwald  Court. 

Two  Houses  of  Parliament,  the  Council,  and  the  House 
of  Keys.  Acts  of  this  Parliament  receive  the  assent  of  the 
British  Crown.  Must  then  be  proclaimed  on  Tynwald  Hill. 
(See  Introduction  to  Scotfs  Peveril  of  the  Peak,  and  article 
by  W.  H.  Rideing  in  Harper's  Mag.,  Vol.  50.) 

4.  The  Channel  Ilands. 

Government,  Home  Rule.     Area,  76  sq.  mi.     Popul.,  87,000. 

Ilands  divided  into  Bailiwick  of  Jersey  and  Bailiwick  of  Guernsey. 
Each  bailiwick  under  the  control  of  its  own  representative  legislature 
called  the  »'  States."  The  British  government  appoints  for  each  baili- 
wick a  Lieut.-Governor  and  a  Bailiff.  (See  Ansted's  and  Inglis's 
"k Channel  Islands") 

5.  Local  Administration  of  England. 

principal  divisions. 

a.  The  Parish.    Organization ;  a  Vestry,  and  Board  of  Over- 
seers of  the  Poor  appointed  by  the  Vestry. 

Poor  Law  Parish,  Highway  Parish,  and  Ecclesiastical 
Parish. 

b.  The   Union.     Generally  an  aggregation  of  Parishes ;  au- 
thority, Board  of  Guardians. 

Most  important  duties,  care  of  the  poor  and  sanitation. 

c.  The  County.     Financial,  judicial,  and    administrative  di- 
vision. 


17 


Chief  authorities,  —  Lord-Lieutenant,  Sheriff,  Coroner, 
Justices,  and  County  Councils,  the  latter  a  representative 
legislative  and  administrative  body  created  by  Act  of  1888. 

d.  The  City  of  London.  English  Citizen  Series,  Chalmers : 
Local  Government,  139-147. 

e.  The  Local  Government  Board.  The  central  authority 
for  local  government.      Chalmers,  150,  151. 

"  The  local  government  areas  into  which  England  and  Wales  are  divided  may  be  enu- 
merated as  follows  :  There  are  52  counties,  40  in  England  and  12  in  Wales  ;  239  municipal 
borouglis,  70  Improvement  Act  Districts,  1006  urban  sanitary  districts,  41  port  sanitary  au- 
thorities, 577  rural  sanitary  districts,  2051  school-board  districts,  424  highway  districts, 
853  burial-board  districts,  649  unions,  194  lighting  and  watching  districts,  14,946  poor-law 
parishes,  5064  bighway  parishes,  not  included  in  urban  or  highway  districts,  and  about 
13,000  ecclesiastical  parishes.  The  total  number  of  local  authorities  who  tax  the  English 
rate-payer  is  27,069,  and  they  tax  him  by  means  of  18  different  kinds  of  rates."  M.  D. 
Chalmers :  Local  Government  (English  Citizen  Series),  p.  18. 

6.  Systems  of  Colonial  Government. 

a.  English  colonial  governments  are  of  three  forms  :  — 

(1)  Those  having  neither  responsible  nor  representative 
government. 

(2)  Those  having  a  representative  but  no  responsible  gov- 
ernment. 

(3)  Those  having  both  responsible  and  representative  gov- 
ernments. 

(4)  Dependencies. 

(5)  Protectorates. 

b.  Commercial  importance.  Colonies  and  Dependencies,  120- 
125.  The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  457,  458.  One  third 
of  British  exports  goes  to  the  colonies.  Colonies  and  Depend- 
encies, 121. 

c.  England's  colonies  compared  with  those  of  France  and  Ger- 
many. 

(1)  France.  885,000  sq.  mi.,  or  less  than  one  tenth  of 
England's.  Colonies  represented  in  the  French  Senate 
and  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  politically  form  part  of 
the  Republic. 

(2)  Germany.  Colonial  possessions  large  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  but  as  yet  not  important.  Change  of  policy  in 
1884,  with  extensive  annexations. 

7.  Imperial  Federation. 

Marquis  of  Lome :  Imperial  Federation  (in  Buxton's  Imperial  Par- 
liament Series). 

a.  Colonial  conferences. 


18 


LECTURES    III-IV. 


ENGLISH  POLITICAL  PARTIES. 

1.  The  different  parties. 

a.  Tories  ;  Conservatives. 

b.  "Whigs  ;  Liberals  ;  Radicals. 

c.  Liberal  Unionists. 

d.  Irish  Nationalists,  or  Parnellites,  or  Home  Rulers. 

e.  The  administrations. 


Tories  ;  Conservatives. 

Whigs  ;  Liberals. 

1812-1830 

Lord  Liverpool,  Wellington. 

1830-1834 



Earl  Grey. 

1834-1835 

Peel. 

1835-1841 



Melbourne. 

1841-1846 

Peel. 

1846-1852 



Lord  John  Russell. 

1852 

Derby. 

1852-1858 



Aberdeen,  Palmerston. 

1858-1859 

Derby. 

1859-1865 



Palmerston. 

1865-1866 



Russell. 

1866-1868 

Derby,  Disraeli. 

1868-1874 



Gladstone. 

1874-1880 

Disraeli  (Beaconsfield). 

1880-1885 



Gladstone. 

1885-1886 

Salisbury. 

1886 

Gladstone. 

1886 

Salisbury. 

A.  Parliamentary  and  Electoral  Reforms. 

1.  The  term  reform  in  English  history  is  used  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  representation  in  Parliament. 

2.  French  Revolution  and  its  ideas  exerted  strong  influence  upon 
English  politics,  and  diverted  attention  from  domestic  questions. 
Whigs  (C.  J.  Fox)  inclined  to  criticise  Revolution  more  favorably. 
Tories  (Pitt  and  Burke)  violently  oppose  it  and  sustain  the  long  war 
against  Napoleon.  Popular  Revolutionary  societies.  J3right ;  His- 
tory of  England,  II  J,  1 1 60-62, 


19 

3.  Attempts  at  Reform  before  1832.  Advocated  in  1745  ;  by  Lord 
Chatham  in  1770;  byWm.  Pitt  in  1782;  by  Earl  Grey  in  1792. 
Lecky:  History  of  England  in  \%th  Century,  IV,  60-62.  Molesworth  : 
The  History  of  England,  I,  4-8  ;  after  1816,  bills  were  introduced 
yearly.     Molesworth,  I,  11-14  ;  17.     Opposition. 

4.  Rapid  spread  of  Reform  principles  and  of  popular  discontents 
after  1815,  due  to  — 

a.  Organization  among  workingmen.  Knight :  Popular  His- 
tory of  England,  VIII,  chap.  v. 

b.  Success  of  Irish  agitation  under  O'Connell.     See  below. 

c.  Revolution  of  1830  in  France.  Peaceful  revolution  con- 
ducted by  middle  classes  against  reactionary  king.  See  Lect- 
ure xvii. 

d.  Manufacturing  districts  of  the  North  of  England  unrepre- 
sented in  Parliament. 

Domination  of  the  land-owning  class. 
Triumph  of  Whigs  over  Tories  in  the  Act  of  1832  for  the 
reform  of  Parliament.      Wellington.     Knight:  VIII,  262, 
263.     Bright,lll,  1420-22. 

5»  Character  of  the  franchise  and  of  representation  in  Parliament. 
a.  Distinction  between  county  and  borough  franchise. 

"  The  knight  of  the  shire  was  the  man  of  the  county  which  elected 
him.  The  borough  member  was  ordinarily  a  burgess  of  the  borough 
which  he  represented.  But  the  rule  was  not  followed  in  the  case  of 
the  county.  When  the  position  of  a  member  of  Parliament  became 
a  privilege,  rich  men  evaded  the  law  by  being  admitted  to  the  free 
burghership  of  the  town.  The  election  in  a  borough  was  not  con- 
ducted on  the  principle  which  was  uniformly  in  force  in  the  sur- 
rounding county.  In  some  towns  the  whole  of  the  inhabitants,  in 
others  the  rate-payers,  in  others  again  the  governing  bodies,  chose 
the  representatives.  Originally,  indeed,  the  borough  franchise  was 
probably  wide,  and  included  either  the  whole  of  the  adult  male  inhab- 
itants of  the  borough,  or  those  of  them,  at  any  rate,  who  paid  scot 
and  lot,  as  the  local  and  general  taxes  were  called,  or  enjoyed  the 
freedom  of  the  community.  But  it  was  the  policy  of  the  Stuarts  to 
limit  the  franchise,  and  the  restrictions  which  were  thus  introduced 
were  continued  by  decisions  of  the  House  of  Commons  after  the 
Restoration.  In  consequence  of  these  decisions,  a  great  variety  of 
franchises  existed  in  different  boroughs. 

These  complicated  and  difficult  franchises  made  the  work  of  a 
returning  officer  no  sinecure.     When  Romilly  stood  for  Horsham  in 


20 


1807,  only  73  electors  voted  ;  yet  the  poll-clerk  was  occupied  for  the 
best  part  of  two  days  in  taking  down  the  description  of  every  burg- 
age tenement  from  the  deeds  of  the  voters.  In  Weymouth  the  right 
of  voting  was  the  title  to  any  portion  of  certain  ancient  rents  within 
the  borough  ;  and,  according  to  Lord  Campbell's  autobiography,  sev- 
eral electors  voted  in  1826  as  entitled  to  an  undivided  twentieth  part 
of  a  sixpence."  Spencer  Walpole :  The  Electorate  and  the  Legislature, 
52-54. 

b.  Rotten  and  nomination  boroughs.     McCarthy:  Epoch  of 
Reform,  25,  26. 

"  The  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  were  mostly  returned 
by  decayed  towns  or  little  villages,  and  the  inhabitants  or  electors 
uniformly  supported  the  nominee  of  their  patron.  It  was  stated  in 
1793  that  309  out  of  the  513  members,  belonging  to  England  and 
Wales,  owed  their  election  to  the  nomination  either  of  the  Treasury 
prof  162  powerful  individuals.  The  45  Scotch  members  were  nomi- 
nated by  35  persons.  In  1801,  71  out  of  the  100  Irish  members 
owed  their  seats  to  the  influence  of  55  patrons.  The  House  of  Com- 
mons, therefore,  consisted  of  658  members,  and  of  these  425  were 
returned  either  on  the  nomination  or  on  the  recommendation  of  252 
patrons. 

"Some  boroughs  had  almost  literally  no  inhabitants.  Gatton  was 
a  park  ;  Old  Sarum  a  mound  ;  Corfe  Castle  a  ruin  ;  the  remains  of 
what  once  was  Dunwich  were  under  the  waves  of  the  North  Sea. 
But  the  great  mass  of  boroughs  were  a  little  more  populous  than 
these  places,  and  contained  a  dozen,  fifty,  or  even  one  hundred 
dependent  electors."     Spencer  Walpole,  55,  56. 

c.  Non-representation  of  large  and  important  districts. 

"In  1831  the  ten  southern  counties  of  Kngland  and  Wales  com- 
prised a  population  of  3,260,000  persons,  and  returned  235  members 
to  Parliament ;  the  six  northern  counties  contained  a  population  of 
3,594,000  persons,  and  returned  66  members  to  Parliament ;  Lan- 
cashire, with  1,330,000  people,  had  14  representatives;  Cornwall, 
with  3,000  inhabitants,  had  44  representatives.  In  round  numbers, 
every  7,500  persons  in  Cornwall,  and  every  100,000  people  in  Lan- 
cashire, had  a  member  to  themselves."     Spencer  Walpole,  58- 

d.  Restricted  suffrage. 

e.  Bribery. 

6.  Act  of  1832.  Fyffe,  II,  419-421.  McCarthy:  Epoch  of  Re- 
form, ch.  6.  Mutter,  149,  150.  Molesworth,  I,  chs.  2,  3,  4,  consider  the 
Reform  bill  in  detail. 


21 


a.  56  rotten  boroughs  disfranchised. 

b.  30  boroughs  lost  one  member  ;  2  lost  two  members. 

c.  22  large  towns  given  two  members  ;  20  one  member. 

d.  County  members  increased  from  94  to  159. 

e.  Changes  in  the  franchise  ;  extension. 

"Up  to  1832  the  county  members  had  been  invariably  elected  by 
an  uniform  constituency, —  the  county  freeholders  ;  the  borough  mem- 
bers had  been  elected  by  different  kinds  of  electors  in  different  places. 
The  Act  of  1832  exactly  reversed  this  condition.  The  complicated 
borough  franchises  were  swept  away ;  and,  except  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  rights  of  freemen  and  freeholders,  the  borough  franchise 
was  confined  to  householders  whose  houses  were  worth  not  less  than 
ten  pounds  a  year.  The  county  franchise,  on  the  contrary,  was 
enlarged  by  the  admission  of  copyholders,  of  leaseholders,  and  of 
tenants  whose  holding  was  of  the  clear  annual  value  of  fifty  pounds." 
Spencer  Walpole,  62. 

7.  Change  of  party  names.  Conservatives  and  Liberals.  McCar- 
thy: Own  limes,  I,  28.  Sir  Robert  Peel;  Lord  John  Russell ;  Pal- 
mers ton. 

a.  Anti-Corn  Law  League,  1837-1846.  Richard  Cobden ; 
John  Bright.  Gowing's  Life  of  Cobden.  Morley's  Life  of 
Cobden.     Molesworth,  II,  178-226. 

8.  The  English  Radicals.  Chartism.  Molesworth,  II,  270-302. 
Bright,  IV,  44-46,  87-89,  176-178. 

9.  Reform  Act  of  1867  ;  Disraeli ;  redistribution  and  reduction  of 
franchise.  For  abstract  of  the  Act:  Ewald,  232-238.  McCarthy, 
ch.  51,  52,  II,  340-370.     Molesworth,  III,  ch.  5,  271-355. 

a.  Rivalry  of  Disraeli  and  Gladstone.  See  Kebbeli  Life  of 
Beaconsfeld.     Emerson  :  Life  of  Gladstone. 

10.  Introduction  of  the  Ballot.  Ballot  act  of  1872.  Gladstone. 
Molesworth,  III,  410,  411.  Judges  of  Election  Returns,  1868;  Cor- 
rupt Practices  Prevention  Act,  1883.     Hazell. 

a.  "It  is  still  felt  by  many  who  are  most  earnest  vindicators  of  political  liberty  that  the 
effect  of  the  ballot  must  be  to  impair  political  conscientiousness  by  hiding  out  of  sight  the 
fact  that  the  franchise  is  at  least  as  much  a  trust  to  be  publicly  exercised  as  a  right  to  be 
privately  enjoyed."    Amos:  Fifty  Years  cf  the  English  Constitution,  39. 

b.  "  The  ballot  is  a  machine  to  protect  the  individual  voter,  not  against  the  nation  on 
whose  behalf  he  exercises  the  trust,  but  against  all  sorts  of  illicit  pressure,  outrage,  clamor, 
intrusiveness,  curiosity  and  confusion,  which,  on  so  solemn  an  occasion  as  that  of  recording 
a  vote  for  a  member  of  the  legislature,  may  disconcert  even  the  strongest-minded  voter, 
and  which  voters  of  average  mental  strength  and  intelligence  may  be  wholly  unable  to 
bear  up  against."    Amos :  Fifty  Years  of  the  English  Constitution,  39,  40. 


22 


11.  Reform  Act  of  1885.     Gladstone. 

a.  Extension  of  suffrage. 

b.  Redistribution  of  Parliamentary  seats.  Statesman's  Tear 
Booh,  212-215.     Hazell. 

c.  Result  of  extension  of  suffrage  in  Ireland,  the  triumph  of 
Home  Rule  candidates  except  in  Ulster;  alliance  between 
Liberals  and  Parnellites  to  establish  Irish  Home  Rule. — 
See  below,  §B,  12,  c. 

12.  Woman  Suffrage. 

"  At  a  parliamentary  election  a  woman  cannot  vote,  neither  can  she  Berve  as  a  member  of 
Parliament.  But  a  woman  may  exercise  all  local  franchises  if  she  be  qualified  in  other 
respects,  and  she  also  may  fill  most  local  offices.  It  haB  been  judicially  decided  that  a 
woman  may  be  a  commissioner  of  sewers,  governor  of  a  workhouse,  keeper  of  a  prison, 
gaoler,  parish  constable,  returning  officer  for  a  parliamentary  election,  guardian,  and  over- 
Beer  of  the  poor.  In  the  case  of  the  overseer  the  judges  rather  ungraciously  intimated 
that  a  man  ought  to  be  appointed,  and  that  if  there  was  no  man  available  a  woman  was  the 
next  best  thing. 

"  Women  have  come  forward  lately  in  a  good  many  instances  to  serve  on  school  boards, 
but  with  this  exception  they  have  not  shown  much  disposition  to  take  part  in  local  affairs." 
Chalmers:  Local  Government,  pp.  11,  12. 

13.  Modern  English  Radicalism;  John  Bright,  Joseph  Chamber- 
lain, Sir  Charles  Dilke,  Charles  Bradlaugh,  Republican  in  tendency  ; 
Reform  of  House  of  Lords  ;  most  urgent  demands  met  by  Reform 
Act  of  1885,  and  by  Mr.  Forster's  Education  Acts  of  1869  and  1870, 
establishing  public  school  systems.  Bright,  IV,  462-66.  See  Wemyss 
ReioVs  Life  of  W.  E.  Forster. 

B.     Ireland  and  the  Irish  Question. 

Popul.,  5.1  m. ;  area,  32,531  sq.  mi. ;  4  times  Massachusetts. 

1.  Four  ancient  divisions  of  Ireland  :  Leinster,  Munster,  Connaught, 
and  Ulster;  the  three  former,  Catholic  ;  the  latter,  Protestant. 

2.  History  of  Ireland  before  the  Legislative  Union  with  fmgland 
(1801).  First  invasion  from  England,  1169.  First  real  conquest  of 
the  whole  iland  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1595-1602. 

a.  1495.     Statute  of  Drogheda. 

(1)  Irish  Parliament  not  to  be  held  except  by  consent  of 
King  of  England. 

(2)  No  bill   to  be  introduced  into  Irish  parliament  except 
by  King's  consent. 

(3)  Recent  English  legislation  should  extend  to  Ireland. 

b.  1597.  Rebellion  of  the  Irish.  Green:  Short  History  of 
English  People,  449-452. 

c.  1633.  The  "Thorough"  policy  of  Wentworth.  Green, 
509,510. 


23 


d.  1641.  Irish  massacre  in  Ulster;  30,000  Protestants  slain. 
The  period  of  Cromwell.  Deane  :  A  Short  History  of  Ire- 
land, ch.  v ;  Green,  558. 

e.  1652.  Act  of  Settlement  for  Ireland.  Land  of  the  Irish 
in  Ulster,  Minister,  and  Leinster  was  confiscated  and  dis- 
tributed among  those  who  had  advanced  money  for  the  war, 
and  the  soldiers.  Papists  who  had  not  taken  part  in  the 
rebellion  received  land  in  Connaught. 

f  1689-i"801.     The  Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland  supported 
James  II. ;  after  the  Revolution  treated  with  great  harsh- 
ness.    Roman  Catholics  excluded  from  Irish  Parliament. 
Green,  670,  671  ;  772,  773. 
"A  reward  of  £100  is  offered  for  information  against  any  priest 
who  exercises  his  religious  functions,  for  which  the  penalty  is  impris- 
onment for   life.      Every  Papist  at  the  age  of  eighteen  is  to  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy,  and  subscribe  the  declaration 
against  transubstantiation  and  the  worship  of   saints,  in  default  of 
which  he  is  incapable  of  holding  land  by  purchase  or  inheritance, 
and  the  property  is  to  go  to  the  next  Protestant  kin.     No  Catholic  is 
to  send  his  children  abroad  to  be  educated.     N.  B.  —  This  Act  was 
rarely  put  into  practice.     Acland  and  Ransome:  Political  History, 
124. 

For  the  whole  period  before  the  Union.  May:  Constitutional  His- 
tory of  England,  II,  ch.  16.     Deane,  ch.  7. 

3.  Legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  with  Ireland,  1801  ;  Imperial 
parliament ;  Ireland  sent  32  members  to  the  House  of  Lords,  and  100 
members  to  House  of  Commons.     Deane,  ch.  10.     Green,  112,  113. 

Pitt  not  successful  in  attempt  to  repeal  certain  Acts  against  the 
Roman  Catholics. 

4.  Emmet's  Rebellion,  1803.     Deane,  137. 

5.  Catholic  Emancipation,  1829.  Deane,  147-156.   Green,  778-798. 
Catholics   admitted   to  all   offices  except   those  of    Regent,  Lord 

Chancellor  of  England  and  Ireland,  and  Viceroy  of  Ireland.     Daniel 
O'Connell.     McCarthy,  ch.  12.    Hamilton's  Life  of  O ' Connell. 

6.  The  tithe  war.  Molesworth,  I,  293,  303,  373,  385;  II,  18. 
Deane,  156-168,  178.  McCarthy :  .Epoch  of  Reform,  ch.  8.  1838, 
Irish  poor  law. 

"  It  is  shown  that  the  state  church  included  little  more  than  one  tenth  of  the  people,  that 
in  150  parishes  there  was  not  one  Protestant,  and  in  860  parishes  less  than  50." 

7.  Agitation  for  Repeal  of  the  Union,  and  for  the  reestablishment 
of  an  Irish  Parliament.     Beginning  of  the  "  Home  Rule  "  movement, 


24 

1843.     Deane,  ISo-ldO.    McCarthy,  I,  182-203.    McCarthy:  Epoch 
of  Reform,  191-194. 

In  this  agitation  O'Connell  condemned  the  use  of  physical  force,  and 
hoped  to  dissolve  the  Union  by  peaceful  methods;  this  policy  was 
too  cautious  for  the  more  radical  portion  of  his  followers,  and  there 
was  consequently  a  secession  known  as  the  Young  Ireland  Movement. 
McCarthy,  I,  302-317.    Deane,  196-202.    Epoch  of  Reform,  195. 

8.  Potato  famine,  1847;  emigration,  chiefly  to  the  United  States. 
.  Deane,  190-193.    McCarthy,  I,  277-282. 

9.  Fenianism.  Deane,  203-211.  McCarthy,  II,  373-390.  Reign 
of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  577-583.  Rutherford's  Secret  History  of  the 
Fenian  Conspiracy. 

10.  Disestablishment.  Deane,  ch.  14.  McCarthy,  II,  450-454, 
463-471. 

11.  The  land  question.  Deane,  ch.  15.  McCarthy,  II,  471-479. 
Land  owned  largely  by  few  persons  ;  absenteeism  ;  evictions ;  rack- 
rent  system  ;  Ulster  tenant-right ;  Clearances,  and  the  Encumbered 
Estates  Act,  1848-49.  Deane,  223.  Mc  Carthy,  II,  473,  474.  Bright, 
IV,  165-168,  192. 

a.  First  Land  Act,  1860.  Attempt  to  base  relations  between 
the  owner  of  the  land  and  the  tenant  on  contract  instead  of 
custom,  or  common  law.  Reactionary  measure  against  inter- 
ests of  tenants. 

b.  Second  Land  Act,  1870.  For  Gladstone's  Speech,  see 
Molesworth,  III,  385-388.  Mc  Carthy,  II,  477.  Deane,  230- 
237.  Bright,  IV,  460,  461.  Partly  legalized  Ulster  tenant 
right. 

(1)  Compensation  to  tenant  for  disturbance  by  landlord, 
except  in  case  of  eviction  for  non-payment  of  rent. 

(2)  Compensation  for  improvements  which  are  presumed 
to  be  made  by  tenant  unless  landlord  can  prove  the  con- 
trary. 

(3)  Possible  for  tenants  to  borrow  two  thirds  of  purchase 
'  money  necessary  to  buy  their  holding  from  the  Govern- 
ment. 

(4)  Landlords  might  escape  these  conditions  by  letting  land 
on  long  leases. 

c.  Third  Land  Act,  1881 ;  the  "  three  F's."  Deane,  238,  239. 
Muller,  585,  586. 

(1)  "If  a  yearly  tenant  thinks  his  rent  too  high,  he  may 
go  before  the  Land  Commission  Court,  and  get  a  rent 


25 

fixed.  This  rent  cannot  be  raised  for  fifteen  years,  and 
then  only  by  the  Court  which  fixed  it.  This  privilege  is 
called  '  Fair  Rent.' 

(2)  When  a  tenant  has  a  fair  rent  fixed,  he  cannot  be 
evicted  by  his  landlord  except  for  non-payment  of  rent, 
for  dilapidation,  persistent  waste,  or  the  breach  of  some 
other  statutory  condition.  This  privilege  is  called  '  Fix- 
ity of  Tenure.' 

(3)  Every  yearly  tenant  has  now  an  interest  in  his  holding 
which  he  can  sell.  Thus,  a  tenant  wishing  to  give  up  his 
farm  can  sell  the  right  of  succession  for  a  sum  equal  to 
several  years'  purchase  of  the  rent.  This  privilege  is 
called  '  Free  Sale.' 

d.     Land  Purchase  Act  of  1885,  popularly  known  as   Lord 
Ashbourne's  Act, —  renewed  and  extended  in  1888,  appar- 
ently  a  successful  effort  to  increase  the  number   of  land- 
owners.    Deane,  239,  240. 
"  If  a   tenant   wishes  to  buy  his  holding,  and  arranges  with  his 
landlord   as    to  terms,  he  can  change  his  position  from  that  of  a  per- 
petual rent  payer  into  that  of  the  payer  of  an  annuity  terminable  at 
the  end  of  forty-nine  years,  the  Government  supplying  him  with  the 
entire  purchase  money,  to  be  repaid  during  those  forty-nine  years  at 
four  per  cent.     This  annual  payment  of  £4  for  every  £100  borrowed 
covers  both  principal  and  interest.     Thus,  if  a  tenant,  already  paying 
a  statutory  rent  of  £50,  agrees  to  buy  from  his  landlord  at  twenty 
years'  purchase,  or  £1000,  the  Government  will  lend  him  the  money, 
his  rent  will  at  once  cease,  and  he  will  pay,  not  £50,  but  £40  yearly, 
for  forty-nine  years,  and  then  become  the  owner  of  his  holding  free  of 
all  charge."     Up  to  Nov.  30,  1888,  11,920  applicants  had  received 
advances  amounting  to  £4,922,100;  3599  of  these  cases  were  tenants 
paying  less  than  £10  rent.     No  failures  to  pay  installments. 

13.  The  Home- Rule  party,  1870.  McCarthy,  II,  542-545.  Isaac 
Butt,  1870-75;  Shaw,  1875-77;  Parnell,  1877-. 

Agitation  for  restoration  of  Home  Rule  to  Ireland  based  on  disaf- 
fection with  the  system  of  land  tenure.  Parnell  leads  successful  revolt 
of  more  violent  wing  of  Home-Rule  party  against  conservative  leader, 
Butt.     "  Obstruction  "  in    Parliament,    1874-77.     Bright,  IV,  554- 

560. 

a.  The  Land  League  and  National  Convention  system,  1879. 

Refusal  to  pay  rents.     Agrarian  outrages.     Appeal  to  the 

Irish  in  the  United  States.     Bright,  IV,  560-562. 


26 


(1)  W.  E.  Foster's  Coercion  Act,  1881.  Unparalleled 
obstructive  tactics  of  Irish  members  of  Parliament.  T. 
Wemyss  Beid:  Life  of  W.  E.  Foster. 

b.  "  No  Rent  Manifesto."  Suppression  of  Land  League,  Oct. 
20,  1881. 

Organization  of  National  Land  League.  Objects,  polit- 
ical and  industrial  independence.  The  plan  of  campaign  ; 
Michael  Davitt,  leader  of  the  agrarian  agitation.  Doctrine 
of  the  nationalization  of  the  land.  See  Hurlbufs  "Ireland 
under  Coercion"  especially  pp.  161-164;  also  Proceedings 
before  the  Parnell  Inquiry  Commission,  London  Times,  1888. 

(1)  Phoenix  Park  murders,  1882.     The  "  Invincibles." 
Crimes  Acts  of  1882  and  1887.    ffazell,  1888,  pp.  166, 167. 
The  "  Closure  "  to  stop  "  obstruction,"  1887.    ffazell,  432. 

(2)  Contributions  from  America.  The  League  in  the  United 
States. 

c.  Alliance  between  Gladstone  and  Parnell,  1886.  Gladstone's 
Home-Rule  Bill,  April  8,  1886 ;  defeated,  341  to  311.  See 
ffazell,  1887,  uffome  Ruhr 

Gladstone's   Land-Purchase   Bill    (1886),   introduced   to 
accompany  Home-Rule  Bill,  and  failed  with  it.      Contem- 
plated universal  purchase  by  new  Irish  state  with  money 
loaned  by  English  Treasury. 
(1)  Division  of  Liberal  party. 

(a)  Home  Rulers  ;  Gladstone,  Morley,  Harcourt. 

(b)  Liberal  Unionists  ;  Bright,  Hartington,  Chamberlain, 
Goschen,  unite  with  Conservatives  to  maintain  the  union 
of  1801,  and  to  suppress  agrarian  crime  in  Ireland. 

d.  Appeal  to  the  country.  Defeat  of  Gladstone  in  General 
Election  of  1886.  Marquis  of  Salisbury  (Conservative), 
Premier,  1886;  A.  J.  Balfour,  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland, 
1887. 

e.  The  League  "  proclaimed  "  under  Balfour's  Coercion  Act, 
Aug.,  1887.      ffazelVs  Annual  Cyclopedia,  1888,  p.  386. 


27 


LECTURE  V. 


CANADA.     THE  CAPE  COLONY. 
A.     Canada. 

Reference;  Payne:  European  Colonies,  ch.  11. 

1.  Early  history. 

a.  Until  1774,  governed  by  England  as  a  conquered  province. 

b.  From  1774  until  1791,  governed  as  a  crown  colony  by  a 
Governor  under  the  name  of  Province  of  Quebec. 

c.  In  1791,  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  the  Ottawa 
River  being  the  boundary  between  them.  In  each  colony 
a  governor  and  council  were  established,  but  there  was  no 
responsible  government.  Little  wisdom  shown  in  the  gov- 
ernment. 

"  The  Councils  and  Assemblies  could  indeed  vote  new  laws,  but 
their  acts  might  be  vetoed  by  an  irresponsible  Executive.  The  Coun- 
cils and  Assemblies  voted  supplies,  but  the  Executive  administered 
them.  No  member  of  the  Executive  could  be  deprived  of  his  post 
by  the  Council  and  Assembly  ;  and  however  corrupt  and  unpopular 
the  entire  government  might  be,  it  was  removable  only  by  the  Brit- 
ish Government,  which  acted  through  the  Colonial  office.  The  Colo- 
nial office  was  presided  over  by  an  English  Secretary  of  State,  who 
owed  his  position  to  the  chances  of  party  politics,  and  was  sometimes 
ignorant  of  the  very  names  of  the  colonies  whose  fortunes  were  placed 
in  his  hands.  A  system  better  adapted  to  degrade  and  irritate  a 
growing  community  could  not  have  been  devised."      Payne,  103,  104. 

2.  Insurrection  of  1837.     Causes  : 

a.  Ill  feeling  between  the  French  and  English. 

**  In  Lower  Canada  there  was  a  chronic  animosity  between  the  French  and  the  English. 
It  was  a  war  of  races,  which  so  divided  the  people  that  they  hardly  mingled  in  society,  and 
4  the  oidy  public  occasion  when  they  met  was  in  the  jury-box,  and  they  met  there  only  to 
the  utter  obstruction  of  justice.'  "      The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  431. 

b.  Misrule. 

"  There  was  no  agx<eement  between  the  executive  and  the  assembly.    In  all  of  them  the 


28 


administration  of  pnblic  affairs  was  habitually  confined  to  those  who  did  not  co-operate 
harmoniously  with  the  popular  branch  of  the  legislature."  The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria, 
I,  431. 

3.  Responsible  government  (the  Union  Act)  granted  in  1840. 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada  were  united. 

"  The  subordination  of  the  Executive  to  the  Legislature,  as  in  the 
mother-country,  which  was  thus  secured,  received  the  name  of  '  Re- 
sponsible Government.'  It  was  the  emancipation  of  the  colony,  and 
rendered  it  practically  as  free  as  one  of  the  United  States.  It  was 
also  the  emancipation  of  the  empire,  for  when  secured  in  one  of  the 
colonies  it  was  within  the  reach  of  all.  This  change  is  the  principal 
event  in  our  modern  colonial  history.  Henceforth  it  was  recognized 
that  the  inhabitants  of  all  colonies  where  Englishmen  are  the  major- 
ity were  entitled  to  the  same  political  rights  as  Englishmen  at  home." 
Payne,  105,  106. 

4.  Canadian  Federation.      Payne,  162-164. 

a.  1867,  union  of  Canada,  —  composed  of  the  provinces  of 
Ontario  and  Quebec, —  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick 
as  a  u  Dominion."     Bright,  IV,  433-435. 

b.  Since  then  Prince  Edward  Island,  British  Columbia,  and 
Manitoba  have  joined  the  Confederation.  Newfoundland 
not  yet  included. 

"  The  Canadian  federation  was  a  consequence  of  the  American  civil  war.  Not  only  did 
there  seem  to  be  every  prospect  of  attack,  but  the  action  of  the  home  government  taught 
the  various  colonies  of  North  America  that  they  must  rely  on  their  own  strength  for  defense. 
The  necessity  was  common  to  all,  and  the  advantages  of  a  defensive  union  were  conspicu- 
ously brought  before  them."      The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  433. 

5.  The  Central  Government  of  the  Dominion. 

u  The  government  of  the  Canadian  Dominion  is  modelled  upon  the 
Federal  government  of  the  United  States.  P^ach  of  the  seven  prov- 
inces which  compose  the  Dominion  —  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  Manitoba,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  British  Colum- 
bia— -has  its  separate  provincial  legislature.  The  powers  of  these 
provincial  legislatures  are  limited  to  local  questions  ;  and  all  matters 
of  general  public  policy  are  dealt  with  by  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

The  Parliament  of  Canada  meets  annually  at  Ottawa,  upon  sum- 
mons issued  by  the  Governor-General  in  the  Queen's  name.  The 
real  business  of  the  government  is  carried  on  by  a  Cabinet  of  fourteen 
ministers,  who  have  the  support  of  the  majority  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  Prime  Minister  of  the  Dominion,  who  is  called  upon 
by  the  Governor-General  to  form  an  administration,  and  who  forms 
it  out  of  his  political  supporters,  is  the  '  Minister  of  the  Interior.' 
His  duties,  besides  the  general  management  of  the  government  and 


29 

miscellaneous  duties  which  are  not  entrusted  to  any  other  minister, 
include  those  of  the  Home  and  Foreign  Secretaries  in  England." 
Payne,  143,  144. 

England  has  a  nominal  veto  upon  Canadian  legislation,  but  never 
exercises  it.     Appoints  the  Governor-General. 

6.  Government  of  the  Provinces. 

"  For  provincial  political  business  each  province  has  its  own  execu- 
tive and  legislative  bodies.  Each  has  its  Lieutenant-Governor,  who 
is  appointed  by  the  Governor-General.  He  is  assisted  by  an  Execu- 
tive Council  or  Cabinet,  enjoying  the  support  of  the  majority  in  the 
Legislative  Assembly.  Except  Manitoba,  all  the  Provinces  have 
Legislative  Assemblies  ;  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Prince  Edward  Island  have  also  second  chambers  in  the  shape  of 
Legislative  Councils.  Ontario  and  British  Columbia  have  none." 
Payne,  144.    Canadian  voting ;  The  Nation,  Jan.  10,  1889,  pp.  29,  30. 

7.  Political  parties  in  Canada. 

a.  Conservatives,  or  Tories  ;   Sir  John  Alexander  McDonald. 

b.  Liberals,  or  Reformers. 

8.  Recent  growth  and  development  of  Canada.  Its  indebtedness. 
Its  relations  with  the  United  States. 

B.     The  Fishery  Question. 

Open  sea  is  open  to  any  one ;  each  state  owns  the  sea  for  three 
miles  from  the  shore.     Method  of  measurement. 

1.  The  treaty  of  1783. 

"By  the  treaty  of  1783,  which  admitted  the  independence  of  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain  conceded  to  them  the  right  of  fishing  on 
the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  along  such  coasts  of  the  same  island  as 
were  used  by  British  seamen,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  on 
the  coasts,  bays,  and  creeks  of  all  other  British  dominions  in  Amer- 
ica ;  as  well  as  the  right  of  drying  and  curing  fish  in  any  of  the 
unsettled  bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  Nova  Scotia,  the  Magdalen 
Islands,  and  Labrador,  so  long  as  they  should  continue  unsettled  ;  but 
not  the  right  of  drying  or  curing  on  the  island  of  Newfoundland." 
Woolsey :  International  Law,  83. 

2.  Treaty  of  1818. 

u  Article  I.  —  Whereas  differences  have  arisen  respecting  the  lib- 
erty claimed  by  the  United  States  for  the  inhabitants  thereof  to  take, 
dry,  and  cure  fish  on  certain  coasts,  bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  His 
Britannic  Majesty's  dominions  in  America,  it  is  agreed  between  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  that  the  inhabitants  of   the   said  United 


30 


States  shall  have  for  ever,  in  common  with  the  subjects  of  His  Bri- 
tannic Majesty,  the  liberty  to  take  fish  of  every  kind  on  that  part  of 
the  southern  coast  of  Newfoundland  which  extends  from  Cape  Ray 
to  the  Rameau  Islands  ;  on  the  western  and  northern  coast  of  New- 
foundland, from  the  said  Cape  Ray  to  the  Quirpon  Islands,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Magdalen  Islands  ;  and  also  on  the  coasts,  bays,  harbors, 
and  creeks  from  Mount  Joly,  on  the  southern  coast  of  Labrador,  to 
and  through  the  straights  of  Belleisle,  and  thence  northwardly  indefi- 
nitely along  the  coast,  without  prejudice  however  to  any  of  the 
exclusive  rights  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company;  and  that  the  Amer- 
ican fishermen  shall  also  have  liberty  for  ever  to  dry  and  cure  fish  in 
any  of  the  unsettled  bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  coast  of  Newfoundland  here  above  described,  and  of  the  coast  of 
Labrador  ;  but  so  soon  as  the  same,  or  any  portion  thereof,  shall  be 
settled,  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  the  said  fishermen  to  dry  or  cure 
fish  at  such  portion  so  settled,  without  previous  agreement  for  such 
purpose  with  the  inhabitants,  proprietors,  or  possessors  of  the  ground. 
And  the  United  States  hereby  renounce  for  ever  any  liberty  hereto- 
fore enjoyed  or  claimed  by  the  inhabitants  thereof  to  take,  dry,  or 
cure  fish  on  or  within  three  marine  miles  of  any  of  the  coasts,  bays, 
creeks,  or  harbors  of  His  Britannic  Majesty's  dominions  in  America 
not  included  within  the  above-mentioned  limits  ;  provided,  however, 
that  the  American  fishermen  shall  be  admitted  to  enter  such  bays  or 
harbors  for  the  purposes  of  shelter  and  of  repairing  damages  therein, 
of  purchasing  wood,  and  of  obtaining  water,  and  for  no  other  purpose 
whatever.  But  they  shall  be  under  such  restrictions  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  prevent  their  taking,  drying,  or  curing  fish  therein,  or  in  any 
other  manner  whatever  abusing  the  privileges  hereby  reserved  to 
them." 

According  to  this  treaty,  therefore,  American  vessels  can  enter 
harbors  for  shelter,  food,  or  water,  but  not  for  bait* 

3.  Reciprocity  treaty  of  1854.  Liberty  to  American  vessels  to 
fish,  and  commercial  privileges  to  Canadians.  Fish  were  admitted 
free  of  duty. 

"  The  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  shall  have,  in  common  with  the  subjects  of  Her 
Britannic  Majesty,  the  liberty  to  take  fish  of  every  kind,  except  shell  fish,  on  the  sea  coasts 
and  shores,  and  in  the  bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  and  of  the  several  islands  thereunto  adjacent,  without  being  re- 
stricted to  any  distance  from  the  shore." 

This  treaty  terminated  in  1866;  treaty  of  1818  again  in  force. 

4.  Treaty  of  Washington,  1871.  Government  of  United  States 
agreed  to  pay  Canada  a  certain  sum  per  annum  for  the  grant  of  right 


31 


to  fishermen.     In  1880  this  treaty  was  extended  for  a  further  period 
of  five  years.     Allowed  to  lapse  in  1886. 
5.   Present  situation. 

C.     The  Cape  Colony. 

1.  Cape  Colony,  or  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Payne :  European  Colo- 
nies,  185-191.  Settled  by  the  Dutch  ;  since  1806  possessed  by  Eng- 
land. 

English  colonies  in  Southern  Africa  have  been  incorporated  with 
Cape  Colony,  except  Natal ;  and  Natal,  although  a  crown  colony,  pos- 
sesses a  representative  government.  The  Boer  republics  also  must 
be  ranked  by  themselves. 

"  The  only  colony  outside  the  North  American  and  Australian  groups  which  has  obtained 
autonomy  is  the  Cape  Colony.  This  Colony  has  a  Legislative  Council  of  22  members, 
elected  for  seven  years,  and  a  House  of  Assembly  of  72  members,  both  houses  being  elected 
by  electors  possessing  a  property  qualification.  The  Governor  is  president  of  the  Executive 
Council,  which  consists  of  the  Cabinet  plus  several  non-official  members.  The  Cabinet 
consists  of  the  Attorney-General,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  who  is  the  Premier,  the  Treas- 
urer, the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands  and  Public  Works,  and  the  Secretary  for  Native 
Affairs."    J.  S.  Cotton  and  E.  J.  Payne :  Colonies  and  Dependencies,  p.  151. 

2.  Natal.    Payne,  191-195.     Declared  an  English  Colony  in  1843. 

a.  Zululand,  northeast  of  Natal ;  war  with  Cetewayo,  1879. 
Annexation  of  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Zulus,  1887. 

3.  The  Free  States :  Transvaal  Republic,  Orange  Free  State, 
formed  1836-40;  the  new  republic  in  Zululand,  formed  1886-87; 
Boers. 

"  These  districts  are  occupied  partly  by  natives  and  partly  by  Euro- 
peans of  mixed  race,  chiefly  Dutch,  whose  ancestors  have  emigrated 
in  past  times  from  the  Cape  Colony,  and  who  are  called  '  Boers.' "  Colo- 
nies and  Dependencies,  151. 

War  between  Transvaal  Republic  and  England  in  1882  resulted  in 
nominal  suzerainty  of  England,  but  practical  independence  of  the 
Boers. 

4.  Confederation  of  African  colonies.     Act  of  1877. 


32 


LECTURE  VI. 


ENGLISH  COLONIES  IN  AIJSTKALASIA  AND  POLYNESIA. 

References  :  The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  437-448.  E.  J. 
Pagne:  European  Colonies,  ch.  12,  165-185.  Silver:  Hand- 
book of  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

1.  The  eight  English  colonies:  Fiji,  Western  Australia,  Southern 
Australia,  Queensland,  New  South  Wales, Victoria,  Tasmania,  and  New 
Zealand  ;  area  nearly  that  of  the  United  States ;  popul.,  nearly  3  m. 

2.  New  South  Wales. 

a.  Early  history  ;  discoveries  ;  Cook's  voyages.  Botany  Bay 
discovered  in  1787 ;  New  South  Wales  the  oldest  settlement ; 
first  settled  by  convicts  ;  1854,  gold  discovered;  growing 
importance  of  the  colony ;  poor  government ;  governors 
were  despotic  ;  no  trial  by  jury  or  criticism  of  the  press ; 
four  classes  of  society ;  convicts,  emancipists,  free  settlers, 
and  officials ;  rivalry  of  emancipists  and  settlers  who  were 
admitted  into  the  colony  in  1851. 

b.  Establishment  of  responsible  government  in  1855.  Par- 
liament ;  Legislative  Council  and  Legislative  Assembly ; 
nature  of  each  ;  the  Governor  and  his  Cabinet. 

"  There  was  one  grievance  common  to  all  the  Australian  colonies.  They  objected  to  the 
mode  adopted  by  the  Home  Government  in  dealing  with  the  public  lands,  and,  in  their 
consequent  anxiety  to  obtain  full  local  powers  of  control,  they  hastened  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  authority  granted  by  the  Act  to  introduce  a  more  fully  representative  system 
with  two  chambers.  Their  action  was  confirmed  by  the  Home  Parliament,  and  the  public 
lands  were  surrendered  to  colonial  management.  By  that  time  New  Zealand  and  the 
Cape  had  obtained  representative  legislatures,  the  one  in  1852,  the  other  in  the  succeeding 
year.  The  result  of  the  policy  of  this  period  was,  not  only  that  representative  institutions 
had  been  granted  to  the  colonies  of  Australasia  and  the  Cape,  but  that  throughout  the 
British  possessions  the  independence  of  the  colonial  legislatures  had  been  acknowledged, 
and  their  claims  to  a  parliamentary  government  satisfied."  The  lieign  of  Queen  Victoria, 
I,  414. 

c.  Question  of  single  or  double  legislative  chamber. 
A.  Advantages  of  a  single  assembly. 

1.  "  That  the  enormously  increased  legislative  business  of  modern  times  is,  on  the  whole, 
delayed,  hampered,  and  interrupted  to  an  extent  wholly  disproportionate  to  any  benefits 
derived  by  a  second  discussion  conducted  in  a  different  assembly. 


33 


2.  "As  a  barrier  ag-ainst  the  tempestuous  current  of  democracy,  the  Second  Chamber  is 
worse  than  useless,  because  if  the  more  popular  Chamber  is  practically  omnipotent,  resist- 
ance will  only  be  persisted  in  in  matters  on  which  the  mind  of  the  people  is  not  fully 
made  up,  and  therefore  on  which  no  legislation  ought  to  take  place  at  all ;  which  is  only 
saying  that  the  popular  Chamber  is  badly  composed,  not  efficiently  representing  the  peo- 
ple, and  prone  to  reckless  legislation  ;  or  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  popular  Chamber  is 
not  omnipotent,  and  the  two  Chambers  are  of  co-equal  efficiency,  legislation  will  either  be 
the  result  of  a  series  of  compromises,  or  be  barred  altogether  by  a  succession  of  deadlocks, 
as  it  has  been  in  the  British  Colony  of  Victoria. 

3.  "  So  far  as,  like  the  Senate  of  the  U.  S.  and  of  France  and  the  Legislative  Councils  of 
the  Australian  Colonies,  it  represents  a  different  class  of  interests  or  sentiments,  it  is  pure 
legislative  loss,  without  any  compensating  gain." 

B.  Advantages  of  a  double  assembly,  or  a  bicameral  system. 

1.  "  That  it  affords  a  check  upon  the  characteristic  tendency  of  a  democratic  assembly  to 
hasty  and  precipitate  legislation. 

2.  "  Unless  the  constitution  of  the  Second  Chamber  exactly  repeats  the  constitution  of 
the  first,  its  existence  affords  the  opportunity  of  approaching  a  legislative  problem  from  a 
new  point  of  view,  and  throwing,  perliaps,  fresh  lights  upon  it. 

3.  "  By  prolonging  and  complicating  the  process  of  legislation,  it  affords  multiplied  op- 
portunities for  correcting  the  oversights,  supplying  the  defects,  and  improving  the  struct- 
ure of  legislative  measures. 

4.  "  In  the  case  of  the  Second  Chamber  being  representative  like  the  first,  but  represen- 
tative of  other  classes  of  the  community,  it  affords  a  security  tliat  the  interests  of  these 
classes  are  not  overlooked."     Amos:  The  Science  of  Politics,  238,  239. 

See  also  May  :  Constitutional  History  of  England,  II,  535-537. 

3.  Victoria ;  capital,  Melbourne ;  separated  from  New  South 
Wales  in  1850;  constitution  granted  in  1855;  more  liberal  than 
that  of  New  South  Wales  ;  legislative  council  elected  instead  of  being 
nominated  by  the  Crown. 

4.  Southern  Australia  ;  capital,  Adelaide  ;  discovered  in  1802  ;  set- 
tled by  a  company  and  not  by  convicts,  1836  ;  real  estate  speculation  ; 
governed  by  the  Crown  until  1856,  when  a  liberal  constitution  was 
granted. 

The  Wakefield  system. 
"  Mr.  Wakefield's  plan  was  to  arrest  the  strong  democratic  tendencies  of  the  new  com- 
munity, and  to  reproduce  in  Australia  the  strong  distinction  of  classes  which  was  found  in. 
England.  He  wanted  the  land  sold  as  dear  as  possible,  so  that  laborers  might  not  become 
land-owners  ;  and  the  produce  of  the  land  was  to  be  applied  in  tempting  laborers  to  emi- 
grate with  the  prospect  of  better  wages  than  they  got  at  home.  It  was  really  a  plan  for 
getting  the  advantages  of  the  colony  into  the  hands  of  the  non-laboring  classes."  E.  J. 
Payne:  European  Colonies,  173. 

5.  Western  Australia ;  capital,  Perth  ;  first  settled  on  King  George's 
Sound  by  convict  party  from  New  South  Wales,  1825,  sent  to  antici- 
pate a  French  attempt.  Governor  appointed  by  the  Crown.  Legis- 
lative Council  of  18  members,  12  of  whom  are  elected.  Growth  of 
colony  retarded  by  convict  labor. 

6.  Queensland  ;  until  1859  known  as  Morton  Bay,  a  convict  colony ; 
not  so  advanced  as  others.  Governor,  responsible  ministry,  and  two 
Houses  of  Parliament.  Excitement  on  annexation  of  New  Guinea 
in  1883,  and  over  New  Hebrides  in  1887. 


34 

7.  Tasmania;  convict  settlement,  1803-50;  constitution  and  rep- 
resentative government  similar  to  that  of  New  South  Wales. 

8.  New  Zealand  ;  English  sovereignty  proclaimed  in  1840;  repre- 
sentative government;  representation  of  natives  in  the  parliament. 

9.  Fiji,  ceded  to  England  in  1874;  a  crown  colony. 

10.  The  transportation  of  convicts,  1787-1858  ;  arguments  in  favor 
of  it ;  objections. 

11.  Alienation  of  public  lands.  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  443. 
Hazell,  1888,  p.  32. 

12.  The  gold  supply  of  Australia ;  export  of  £700  m. ;  no  prospect 
of  a  diminution. 

13.  The  Australian  system  of  voting. 

14.  Federation  of  Australian  colonies;  Act  of  1885  providing  for 
a  representative  council  to  meet  once  in  two  years ;  its  power. 

15.  Doctrine  that  Crown  may  not  appoint  Governors  without  con- 
sulting the  local  authorities.  Resistance  by  the  colony  of  Queensland 
to  choice  of  Crown  for  Governor  of  that  colony,  1888.  Sympathy  in 
other  colonies.  Australian  nationality.  Geo.  Baden  Powell:  Select- 
ing Colonial  Governors;  Nineteenth  Century,  Dec,  1888.  A.  W. 
Stirling:  Queensland;  Fortnightly  Review,  Dec,  1888.  United 
Australia  and  Imperial  Federation;    Westm.  Review,  Sept.,  1888. 


LECTURE  VII. 


THE  ASIATIC  EMPIRE  OF  ENGLAND. 

A.    India. 

References  :  W.  W.  Hunter:  The  Indian  Empire.  Sir  Henry 
Maine :  India ;  in  The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  460. 
McCarthy,  II,  chs.  xxxii— xxxvi.  Monier  Williams:  Hindu- 
ism. Rhys  Davids :  Buddhism.  Meredith  Townsend :  Will 
England  Retain  India?  Contemp.  Review,  June,  1888,  p,  795. 


35 

Sir  James  Caird:  India  ;  The  Land  and  the  People.  A.  R. 
Colquhoun:  Amongst  the  Shans.  Sir  J.  Phear :  The  Aryan 
Village  in  India  and  Ceylon.  A.  H.  Keane :  Asia  ;  in  Stan- 
fords  Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel.  J.  R.  Seeley  : 
The  Expansion  of  England ;  Course  II,  Lectures  II-IV. 

1.  Size,  density,  physical  characteristics.  Area,  including  Ceylon, 
Aden,  and  Burmah,  1.66  m.  sq.  mi.,  or  nearly  one  half  United  States; 
popul.,  260  m.     Hazell. 

2.  History  of  acquisition  by  England.     McCarthy,  I,  440. 

a.  Organization  of  East  India  Company  in  1600,  for  trading  ; 
rival  companies  ;  final  consolidation  and  exclusive  privi- 
leges to  trade  to  all  places  between  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

b.  Establishment  of  factories.     Hunter,  276,  277. 

c.  Contests  with  Dutch  and  French  trading  companies. 

d.  Clive  and  the  battle  of  Plassey,  1757.  "History  has 
agreed  to  adopt  this  date  as  the  beginning  of  the  Brit- 
ish Empire  in  the  East." 

Hunter,  285  ;  Mutter,  154  ;  or  Lodge,  418. 
(1)   Conquest  and  annexation  of  Lower  Burmah,  1826,  and 
1852  (Rangoon). 

e.  Governed  by  East  India  Co.  until  1858.     Hunter,  322,323. 

f.  Sepoy  mutiny  occurred,  1857-58  ;  its  cause,  "  an  outburst  of 
terrified  fanaticism,"  and  desire  to  restore  native  independ- 
ence ;  the  government  transferred  from  East  India  Co.  to 
the  Crown.  Muller,  21)2-294  ;  or  McCarthy,  II,  85-92. 
Hunter,  318-322.  t 

<g.  In  1876,  Victoria  took  the  title  Empress  of  India.    Hunter, 

323. 
h.  Protectorate  over  Beloochistan  established  in  1883.    Quetta, 

chief  town,  occupied  in  1876.  Important  only  as  an  approach 

to  Persia  or  to  Afghanistan. 
e.  Conquest  and  annexation  of  Upper  Burmah  ;  King  Thebaw  ; 

French  intrigues,  1885-86  ;  conflicts  with  native  "  Dacoits"; 

approach  to  Chinese  frontier.       uOur  Task  in  Burmah''': 

Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  41,  p.  376. 
j.  Relations  with  Tibet ;  war  about  territory  of  Sikkim,  1888  ; 

interference  of  Chinese  Ambassador  at  Lassa. 

3.  Language  and  Education.  No  single  common  name  for  all 
India;  extreme  varieties;  106  different  languages,  of  which  18  are 
spoken  by  more  than  a  million  persons  each.     "  India  is  much   less 


36 


uniform  than  Europe."  The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  461.  In 
British  India,  out  of  200  m.  inhabitants  not  more  than  six  per  cent  can 
read  and  write  ;  less  than  one  per  cent  has  any  knowledge  of  English. 

4.  Religion.  187  m.  Hindoos  ;  50  m.  Mohammedans  ;  6  m.  Bud- 
dhists ;  1.8  m.  Christians  ;  85,000  Parsees  ;  bitter  antagonism  between 
Mohammedans  and  Hindoos.  W.  W.  Hunter:  London  (Weekly) 
Times,  Mar.  2,  1888,  pp.  8,  9. 

5.  Administration  and  organization  of  the  Empire  of  India. 

a.  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  the  supreme  authority. 
India  office  in  London  ;  Secretary  of  State  for  India  respon- 
sible to  Parliament ;  a  Cabinet  Minister,  assisted  by  a 
Council,  divided  into  Committees.     Hunter,  328. 

b.  Administrative  divisions  in  India.     McCarthy,  II,  91,  92. 

(1)  Supreme  authority  in  India  vested  in  Viceroy  or  Gov- 
ernor-General, who  is  assisted  by  Council  ;  both  Viceroy 
and  Council  appointed  by  the  Crown. 

Two  functions  of  Council : 

(a)  Administrative,  consists  of  Viceroy,  and,  usually,  the 
six  appointed  members. 

(6)  Legislative,  consists  of  Viceroy  and  the  six  members, 
with  about  twelve  additional  members,  nominated  by 
the  Viceroy,  of  whom  one  half  must  be  non-official  per- 
sons, and  of  whom  some  are  always  natives. 

(2)  British  possessions  divided  into  12  governments  (two 
presidencies,  Madras  and  Bombay),  and  10  provinces. 

(3)  Provinces  divided  into  districts,  —  240  in  number, — 
each  in  charge  of  a  collector.  "  Upon  the  energy  and 
personal  character  of  the  collector  depends  ultimately 
the  efficiency  of  the  Indian  government."  Duties  two- 
fold :  fiscal  officer,  also  civil  and  criminal  judge.  Hunter, 
332. 

c.  Responsibility. 

"  The  political  constitution  of  India  is  regulated  by  a  series  of  Acts  of  Parliament,  which 
culminate  in  the  Act  of  1858  transferring  the  government  from  the  Company  to  the  Crown. 
By  that  statute  it  is  enacted  that  India  shall  be  governed  by,  and  in  the  name  of,  the 
Queen  [now  the  Empress]  through  one  of  her  principal  Secretaries  of  State,  assisted  by  a 
council.  The  Secretary  of  State  is  a  Cabinet  Minister  ;  and,  according  to  the  practice  of 
the  British  constitution,  he  must  have  a  seat  in  one  of  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament,  while 
his  Under-Secretary  must  sit  in  the  other.  Responsibility  to  Parliament  is  thus  provided, 
with  all  that  this  entails.  The  Indian  Budget  is  annually  submitted  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, though  the  ways  and  means  are  not  voted  in  detail  as  with  the  English  Budget.  Still 
it  is  recognized  in  countless  matters  that  the  English  Parliament  is  really  the  supreme 
ruler  of  India."    J.  S.  Cotton :  Colonies  and  Dependencies,  Part  I,  36,  37. 


37 


d.  The  village  communities  of  India. 

"  The  community  is  so  organized  as  to  be  complete  in  itself.  The  end  for  which  it  exists  is 
the  tillage  of  the  soil,  and  it  contains  within  itself  the  means  of  following  its  occupation 
without  help  from  outside.  The  brotherhood,  besides  the  cultivating  families  who  form 
the  major  part  of  the  group,  comprises  families  hereditarily  engaged  in  the  humble  arts 
which  furnish  the  little  society  with  articles  of  use  and  comfort.  It  includes  a  village 
watch  and  a  village  police,  and  there  are  organized  authorities  for  the  settlement  of  dis- 
putes and  the  maintenance  of  civil  order Villages  frequently  occur  in  which 

the  affairs  of  the  community  are  managed,  its  customs  interpreted,  and  the  disputes  of  its 
members  decided  by  a  single  Headman,  Whose  office  is  sometimes  admittedly  hereditary, 
but  is  sometimes  described  as  elective  ;  the  choice  being  generally,  however,  in  the  last 
case,  confided  in  practice  to  the  members  of  one  particular  family,  with  a  strong  prefer- 
ence for  the  eldest  male  of  the  kindred,  if  he  be  not  specially  disqualified.  But  I  have 
good  authority  for  saying  that  in  those  parts  of  India  in  which  the  village-community  is 
most  perfect,  and  in  which  there  are  the  clearest  signs  of  an  original  proprietary  equality 
between  all  the  families  composing  the  group,  the  authority  exercised  elsewhere  by  the 
Headman  is  lodged  with  the  Village  Council.  It  is  always  viewed  as  a  representative  body 
and  not  as  a  body  possessing  inherent  authority  ;  and  Whatever  be  its  real  number,  it  always 
bears  a  name  which  recalls  its  ancient  constitution  of  five  persons."  Maine :  Village  Com- 
munities, 122,  175. 

(1)  Zamindars, — land-holding  aristocracy  of  Bengal,— rel- 
ics of  old  Mohammedan  Empire.     Hunter,  334,  335. 

e.  Extension  of  local  government.  A.  H.  L.  Frazer :  Local 
Self- Government  in  India;  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  39,  238 
(1886). 

Lord  Ripon's  policy,  1879-84  ;  Ilbertbill.  Extends  bene- 
fits of  local  self-government.  Ilbert  bill  to  extend  jurisdic- 
tion of  native  judges  in  criminal  offences  over  Europeans. 

f.  Four  Indian  National  Congresses  : 

In  1885  at  Bombay  ;    in  1886  at  Calcutta ;    in  1887  at 
Madras  ;  in  1888  at  Allahabad. 
Demands : 

(1)  Admission  of  Hindoo  people  to  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment of  India. 

(2)  Abolition  of  the  Council  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
India  as  at  present  constituted. 

(3)  Admission  of  Hindoos  on  equal  terms  with  English  to 
the  civil  service  of  India,  and  upon  competitive  examina- 
tion tests. 

References:  R.  S.  Watson:  Indian  National  Congress;  The 
Contemporary  Review,  July,  1888.  John  Flagg :  The  Na- 
tional Indian  Congress ;  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  19,  710 
(May,  1886).  Sir  Wm.  H.  Gregory:  The  Indian  Moham- 
medans ;  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  20,  886  (Dec,  1886).  The 
Allahabad  Congress  ;  London  (Weekly)  Times,  Jan.  4, 1889, 
p.  12. 


38 

Reasons   against   representative    government    in    India, 
strongly  stated  by  Lord  Duffer  in.    London  (Weekly)  Times, 
Dec.  7,  1888,  p.'lO.    N.  T.  Nation,  J an.  10,  1889,  p.  26. 
g.  Unifying  influences  :  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  462. 

(1)  Land  system. 

(2)  Extension  of  Christian  morality. 

(3)  Administration  of  justice  by  English  courts. 

(4)  English  language. 

h.  Wheat  trade  of  India.  Hunter,  384,  385  ;  452  ;  current  num- 
bers of  BradstreeVs. 

6.  Feudatory  India.  About  800  states,  20  or  30  large  ones  ; 
area,  509,000  sq.  mi.  ;  popul.,  55  m.  ;  governed  by  native  princes, 
advised  by  agents  appointed  by  Viceroy  ;  no  right  to  make  war  or 
peace ;  some  pay  tribute.     Hunter,  60. 

7.  Non-British  possessions  in  India. 

a.  Portuguese, —  Goa,  Daman,  and  Diu  on  Western  coast. 
Popul.,  400,000. 

b.  French,— Pondicherry,  southeastern  coast.  Popul.  300,000. 

8.  Ceylon,  Crown  Colony.     Cotton  and  Payne,  152,  153. 

9.  Relations  with  Siam  and  the  states  of  the  Malay  peninsula  ;  most 
of  the  latter  dependent  on  British  Empire.  Admirable  commercial 
position  of  Singapore;  occupied  by  the  English,  1818-19. 

B.    The  English  and  Russian  Empires  in  Central  Asia. 

1.  Russian  encroachments  upon  Asia. 

a.  Possessions  in  1750. 

b.  Lines  of  advance. 

(1)  Southeast   from   Oremberg.     The    Khanates  of    Kho- 
kand,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva  were  acquired,  1881-84. 

(2)  Valley  of  Jaxartes  to  Oxus  river. 

(3)  Southward  on  both  sides  of  the  Caspian. 

c.  Capture  of  Merv,  1884. 

d.  Herat,  the  Key  to  India. 

c.  The  Trans-Caspian  Railway,  1887.  A.  Vambery :  The 
Trans- Caspian  Railway;  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  41,  p. 
294. 

f.  Exclusion  of  all  but  Russian  trade. 

g.  Destruction  of  the  Turkoman  slave  trade.  Curzon:  Visit 
to  Bokhara  the  Noble  ;  Fortnightly  Review,  Jan.,  1889. 


39 

2.  Relations  of  England  and  Russia  to  Afghanistan. 

a.  Afghanistan,  subject  to  Persia  until  the  first  part  of  last 
century.  No  Afghan  nation.  Warlike  tribes,  most  of  whom 
are  united  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Ameers  of  Kabul. 
Fierce  inter-tribal  rivalries  and  jealousies.  Religion,  Mo- 
hammedan. 

b.  First  Afghan  war,  1839.  Muller,lo4.  McCarthy,  I,  151- 
180.    Hunter,  309.  310. 

War  between  England  and  the  Afghans  in  1839,  on 
account  of  the  advance  of  the  Russians.  England  set  up 
a  friendly  prince  as  ruler.  At  the  instigation  of  the  Rus- 
sians the  Afghans  rose  against  the  English,  and  defeated 
them  disastrously.  The  English,  however,  soon  gained 
supremacy,  destroyed  Candahar  and  Cabul,  and  then  evac- 
uated the  country.  England  lost  prestige  on  account  of 
political  and  military  mistakes. 

"  The  permanent  interest  of  this  Afghan  war  arises  from  its  being  the  first  of  a  series  of 
efforts  to  arrest  or  neutralize  the  steady  advance  of  the  Russian  power  to  the  mountains 
which  form  the  northwestern  frontier  of  India."     The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  I,  465. 

c.  Second  Afghan  war,  1878-81.  Muller,  577-580.  McCar- 
thy,  II,  617-619.    Hunter,  326,  327. 

In  1877,  England  made  a  treaty  with  the  Prince  of  Be- 
loochistan  ;  Quetta  and  the  road  between  Candahar  and 
Cabul  were  granted  for  occupation.  The  Ameer  of  Afghan- 
istan, Shere  Ali,  sought  alliance  with  Russia.  A  mission 
was  sent  by  the  latter  power  ;  this,  however,  a  breach  of 
the  understanding  between  England  and  Russia.  An 
ambassador  was  therefore  sent  by  England  ;  he  was  denied 
admittance,  and  an  English  military  force  consequently 
advanced.  At  this  juncture  Shere  Ali  died.  His  son, 
Yakoob  Khan,  succeeded  him.  A  treaty  was  made ;  a 
subsidy  granted  to  the  Ameer,  and  a  resident  agent  of 
England  appointed.  A  mutiny  then  occurred,  followed  by 
a  massacre  of  English  troops.  Advance  of  General  Rob- 
erts, and  war.  Abdurrahman  recognized  as  the  Ameer. 
English  finally  victorious.  Candahar  evacuated  in  1881. 
Present  supremacy  of  English  influence. 

3.  Boundary  disputes  between  England  and  Russia.  Determina- 
tion of  the  northern  boundary  of  Afghanistan  by  a  joint  commission 
of  English  and  Russians,  in  1886-87.  Geo.  N.  Curzon:  The  Scientific 
Frontier  an  Accomplished  Fact;  Nineteenth  Century,  June,  1888, 
p.  901. 


40 

4.  Position  of  Pall  Mall  Gazette  and  Non-alarmists.  It  is  claimed  : 

a.  The  true  scientific  frontier  is  not  the  northern  boundary  of 
Afghanistan,  but  the  Indus. 

b.  Herat  is  not  the  key  to  India. 

c.  England  has  no  right  to  complain  of  Russian  advance ; 
matched  by  English  policy  of  conquest. 

d.  Impossible  to  make  Afghanistan  a  u  buffer"  state  since  it 
is  peopled  by  a  variety  of  races  in  tribal  condition. 

e.  The  true  frontier  is  the  great  wall  of  India,  consisting  of 
the  Suliman  mountains.  Few  passes  ;  the  Indus  is  unford- 
able  up  to  Peshawur. 

John  Slagg :  The  True  Scientific  Frontier  of  India ;  Nine- 
teenth Century,  July,  1885,  p.  151.  Henry  Green:  The  Great 
Wall  of  India ;  Nineteenth  Century,  May,  1885,  p.  905. 

5.  Relations  of  England  and  Russia  to  Persia. 
References:   Claude  Vincent:    Through  Persia  ;   Contemp.  Review, 

vol.  49,  p.  252  (Feb.,  1886).     S.  G.   W.  Benjamin:  Persia. 
Area  of  Persia,  630,000  sq.  mi.,  or  one  fifth  of  United    States ; 
largely  a  desert.     Population,  7  m. 

a.  History.  632-651,  A.  D.,  all  Persia  conquered  by  Sara- 
cens, and  gradually  converted  to  Mohammedanism.  Until 
1747,  a  populous  and  more  extensive  state  than  at  present. 
In  that  year  Nadir  Shah  died,  and  the  country  fell  into  a 
state  of  anarchy,  owing  to  rival  claimants  for  the  throne. 
At  this  period  Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan  separated  from 
Persia,  which  became  divided  into  a  number  of  small  inde- 
pendent states.  In  1755,  unity  again  established  in  western 
Persia.     Wars  with  Russia  and  cessions  of  territory. 

(1)  1797,  territory  along  the  Kur  ceded  to  Russia. 

(2)  1802,  Georgia  made  a  Russian  province. 

(3)  1811-13,  surrender  to  Russia  of  all  territory  north  of 
Armenia ;  Russia  obtained  right  of  navigation  upon  the 
Caspian. 

(4)  In  1826,  lost  all  possessions  in  Armenia.  In  1829,  the 
popular  exasperation  toward  Russia  led  to  a  mutiny  result- 
ing in  the  murder  of  many  Russian  officials.  Further 
concessions,  however,  had  to  be  made  to  Russia,  and  since 
that  date  the  power  of  Persia  has  rapidly  declined.  In 
1834-1848,  through  assistance  of  Russia  and  England, 
Mohammed  Shah  obtained  the  throne,  but  was  constantly 
assailed  by  rivals.     In  1856,  Persia  seized  Herat,  violat- 


41 

ing  treaty  with  Great  Britain  ;  war  and  restoration  in 
1857. 
(5)   Seizure  of   territory  at  the   northeastern    frontier  by 
Russia,  1883. 
b.  Government  and  administration. 

a,  Shah  ;  b,  Cabinet ;  c,  Provinces ;  d,  local  government. 
Apathetic  condition  of  people,  no  fleet,  small  army. 
6.  Present  politics. 

a.  Russian  ambition  ;  a  port  on  Persian  Gulf  ;  alleged  will  of 
Peter  the  Great :  "  hasten  the  decay  of  Persia,  and  penetrate 
to  the  Persian  Gulf."  Russia  regards  Persia  already  as  a 
dependency. 

b.  After  1858,  predominance  of  Russian  trade  and  liberal  use 
of  Russian  money  and  influence  among  Persian  officials.  In 
1887-88,  revival  of  English  influence  in  Persia.  Prohi- 
bition of  Russian  trade  by  Persia.  In  1888,  convention 
between  Persia  and  England  (Sir  H.  D.  Wolff)  opens  the 
Karun  river  (southeast  and  central  Persia)  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  world,  i.  e.,  to  England.  Russia  and  Persia, 
Spectator,  Dec.  15,  1888,  p.  1758. 

c.  Hatred  of  Persians  for  Russia,  on  account  of  fear  of  con- 

quest or  annexation. 

d.  Russia  and  England  control  all  approaches  to  Persia. 

e.  Importance  of  the  question  of  religion. 


LECTURE  VIII 


CHINA.    JAPAN. 

References  :  J.  H.  Wilson :   China,  with  a  Glance  at  Japan.    S.  W. 
Williams :   The  Middle  Kingdom. 

A.   China. 
1.  Chief  geographical  divisions:  the  18  Provinces,  or  China  pro- 
per, Mongolia,  Manchuria,  Corea,  Hi,  or  Chinese  Tatary,  Bodyul, 


42 

or  Tibet.  One  third  larger  than  the  United  States  ;  population,  404 
m.  China  proper  is  about  one  third  of  the  empire.  Wilson,  63-68. 
Williams,  I,  187-206,  237-257. 

2.  Opening  of  trade  with  China  by  Portuguese  in  1516. 

a  From  1742  until  1834,  almost  a  monopoly  of  commerce  by 
English  East  India  and  Dutch  trading  companies  ;  the  tea 
trade;  licensed  Hong  merchants.      Wilson,  315. 

b.  1834,  Napier  sent  to  force  open  trade  with  England.  Wil- 
son, 319.     Williams,  II,  464-474. 

c.  Smuggling  of  opium  into  China  from  India ;  efforts  of 
Chinese  government  to  stop  the  trade,  1834-39 ;  opposition  ; 
English  interests.  Wilson,  321-324.  Williams,  II,  378- 
380,  501. 

d.  Opium  war,  1839-42.  Wilson,  324-340.  McCarthy,  I, 
112-124.      Williams,  II,  463-546.     Muller,  154. 

e.  War  closed  by  Treaty  of  Nanking  : 

(1)  Five  open  ports  to  British  trade  ; 

(2)  Hong  Kong  ceded  to  England  ; 

(3)  China  paid  $21  m. ; 

(4)  Official  intercourse  on  terms  of  equality ; 

(5)  Tariff  established.      Williams,  II,  546-553. 

3.  Taeping  rebellion,  1850-64;  religious  rebellion;  hostility  of 
secret  associations  among  the  true  Chinese  to  the  Manchu  dynasty 
which  now  rules  China  ;  Hung-Tre-Chuen  ;  rebels  professed  to  pro- 
mulgate a  new  religion  based  on  Christianity  ;  immense  loss  of  life ; 
increasing  hostility  to  foreigners ;  rebellion  suppressed  by  aid  of 
English  Col.  Gordon.      Williams,  II,  575-624.      WUsoji,  331-333. 

"The  Emperor  Taow-Kwang,  who  died  in  18C0,  during  latter  part  of  his  reign  hecame 
liberal,  and  favored  the  introduction  of  European  arts  ;  but  his  son,  the  late  emperor, 
departed  from  his  father's  wise  policy  and  adopted  reactionary  measures,  particularly 
against  English  influence.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  consequence,  Aug.,  1850,  of 
alarming  importance.  The  insurgents  at  first  proposed  only  to  expel  the  Tartars  ;  but  in 
March,  1851,  a  pretender  was  announced  among  them,  first  by  the  name  of  Tientch  (Celes- 
tial Virtue),  but  afterwards  assuming  other  names.  He  announced  himself  as  the  restorer 
of  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  Shang-ti,  but  had  derived  many  of  his  dogmas  from  the 
Bible.  He  declared  himself  monarch  of  all  beneath  the  sky,  true  lord  of  China  (and  thus 
of  the  world),  the  brother  of  Jesus,  and  the  Second  Son  of  God,  and  demanded  universal 
submission.  His  followers  were  termed  Taepings.  The  Taepings,  who  began  hostilities 
against  the  Imperialists,  met  with  some  success.  Operations,  suspended  during  war  be- 
tween France  and  England  and  China,  were  renewed  in  1861.  They  sustained  many 
reverses,  and  were  defeated  with  great  loss  in  Feb.,  1864."    Ewald,  122. 

4.  The  Arrow,  under  British  flag,  boarded  by  Chinese  in  starch  of 
pirates,  1856;  McCarthy,  II,  9—19  ;  wars,  1857-60;  alliance  of  France 
and  England;  treaty  of  Peking;  further  concessions.  Wilson,  336- 
342.    McCarthy,  II,  1Q8-H1,  175-183.     Williams,  II,  625-689. 


43 

5.  Rapid  progress  among  governing  classes  in  China  since  1860. 
Prince  Kung  (Ch'un),  and  Li-Hung-Chang.  Wilson,  ch.  x.  Great 
influence  of  the  American,  Anson  Burlingame,  1868-70.  Education 
of  Chinese  youth  in  the  United  States  by  order  of  Chinese  govern- 
ment, 1872-81.      Williams,  II,  739,  740. 

6.  Dispute  with  Russia  over  a  revolted  portion  of  Chinese  Tatary, 
1871-81.  Triumph  of  China,  reconquest  of  district.  Withdrawal  of 
Russians. 

7.  Dispute  with  France  about  French  protectorate  over  Tonquin, 
formerly  a  dependency  of  China,  1882-87.  Unsettled  relations  still 
existing.  Negotiations  with  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Vatican  con- 
cerning French  protectorate  of  Chinese  Catholics.  The  Position  of 
Roman  Catholic  Missionaries  in  China;  London  (Weekly)  Times, 
Jan.  4,  1889. 

8.  Corea;  hereditary,  absolute  monarchy,  and  hereditary  aristoc- 
racy ;  since  17th  century  formal  acknowledgment  of  Chinese  suprem- 
acy. Country  closed  entirely  to  foreigners  until  1876-82.  Area, 
82,000  sq.  mi,      PopuL  estimated  at  11  m.     Russian  designs. 

9.  Political  system  of  China. 

a.  Emperor,  supreme.  Wilson,  169-174,  179-181.  Williams, 
I,  393-403. 

b.  Fundamental  laws  :  first  four  books  of  Confucius  ;  State 
governed  as  a  private  family.      Wilson,  182,  183. 

c.  Central  administration  ;  ministers  of  state.  Wilson,  184- 
192;  the  six  boards  of  government;  the  Censor.  Wilson, 
192,  35  L      Williams,  I,  415-433. 

d.  Provincial  administration,  18  provinces.  Wilson,  193-196. 
Williams,  1,  437-447. 

<e.  Civil  service  ;  examinations.  The  "  Peking  Gazette,"  offi- 
cial organ  of  the  government,  published  daily  for  the  last 
800  years.  Wilson,  181.  J.  N.  Jordan:  Modern  China; 
Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  20.  China,  A  New  Departure  ; 
Western  Review,  Sept.,  1888,  pp.  294-309. 

10.  Religion;  the  state  religion  is  Confucianism;  Taoism;  popular 
religion    is  Buddhism;   ancestral    worship ;    30    m.    Mohammedans. 

Williams,  II,  194-278. 

11.  Economic  development. 

«.  Telegraphic  communication  admitted  to  Peking,  as  a  result 
of  trouble  with  Russia.  Great  popular  prejudice  against 
railways. 


44 


b.  Navigation,  commercial  intercourse.  Wilson,  363.  Wil- 
liams, II,  390-405. 

c.  Financial  system.      Wilson,  202-214. 

B.   Japan. 
References  :   Wilson,  13-18. 

1.  Geographical  situation  ;  four  islands  ;  area  equals  Dakota  ;  pop- 
ulation, 38  m. 

2.  History. 

a.  Lack  of  early  records. 

b.  3d  century  to  1192,  the  Mikado  was  supreme. 

c.  1192-1868,  dual  government  of  Shogun,  or  Tycoon,  and 
Mikado  ;  Mikado  rightful  ruler  ;  Shogun,  at  first  ambitious 
minister  representing  powerful  noble  family,  pushed  Mikado 
into  background;  Mikado  spiritual,  and  Shogun  temporal 
authority. 

d.  1854-78,  conflict  between  Progressives  and  Reactionaries, 
.    precipitated  by  foreign  intrusion. 

e.  1868,  revolution,  and  Mikado  reasserted  his  authority. 

f.  1871,  feudalism  abolished. 

g.  1878,  final  overthrow  of  Reactionaries. 

k.  1873-85,  local  representative  institutions  introduced ;  code 
of  criminal  law ;  Court,  Council,  and  Cabinet ;  establish- 
ment of  schools,  telegraph,  railways  ;  Shinto  religion,  ancient 
national  religion  recognized  as  official;  in  1881,  Mikado 
promised  full  national  Parliament,  to  be  assembled  in  1890. 

3.  Intercourse  of  Japan  with  foreign  countries;  1854,  treaty  with 
United  States,  negotiated  by  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry,  marks  intro- 
duction of  Japan  into  circle  of  modern  nations. 

a.  Extra-territorial  jurisdiction  of  foreign  nations  in  Japan. 
New  Princeton  Review,  Mar.,  1888. 

b.  Oppressive  nature  of  treaty  stipulations  concerning  duties 
on  imports. 

Efforts  of  Japan  to  obtain   revision  of  treaties.      New 
Princeton  Review,  Jan.,  1888. 

4.  Increase  of  Newspapers. 
Japanese  in  the  United  States. 

a.  Shinto-ism,  Buddhism,  Christianity. 

5.  Land  System.    U.  S.  Consular  Reports,  No.  75,  Mar.,  1887,  626. 


45 


LECTURE     IX. 


THE  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 

References:  Rambaud:  History  of  Russia.  A.  F.  Heard:  The 
Russian  Church  and  Russian  Dissent.  D.  M.  Wallace:  Rus* 
sia.  L.  Tikhomirov :  Russia,  Political  and  Social.  Stepniak : 
The  Russian  Peasantry.  George  Kennarfs  Articles  in  The 
Century  Magazine,  1888-89. 

1.  Area  about  8£  m.  sq.  mi.  More  than  twice  as  large  as  the 
United  States.  Popul.,  about  104  m.,  of  whom  68  m.  are  Slavs. 
Popul.  increases  at  rate  of  more  than  1  m.  per  annum. 

2.  Early  history. 

a.  Not  until  the  House  of  Romanoff  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
1613,  did  Russia  begin  to  grow  powerful.  Rambaud,  I, 
254,  258-262. 

In  1613  Russia  comprised  Lapland,  Central  Russia,  the 
valley  of  the  Volga,  and  Western  Siberia. 

b.  1689-1725,  Peter  the  Great;  reforms;  Wallace's  Russia, 
310,  311,  385-389.  Rambaud,  I,  296,  297,  303  ;  II,  22-40. 
Important  changes. 

(1)  Admission  of   foreigners  to   trade  and   own    land    in 
Russia. 

(2)  Nobility  to  depend  on  service  to  the  Czar. 

(3)  Forbade  Asiatic  customs  of  seclusion  of  women. 

(4)  Change  of  capital  from   Moscow  to  new  city  of  St. 
Petersburg. 

(5)  Establishment  of   Boards  of   Control  in  Church  and 
Departments  of  State. 

(6)  Improvement  of  local  government  of  towns  and  prov- 
inces. 

(7)  Compulsory    introduction  of   usages,   inventions,   man- 
ners, ideas  of  Western  Europe. 


46 


(8)  Acquisition  of  a  seaboard,  especially  on  the  Baltic,  and 
creation  of  a  navy.  Rambaud,  II,  9.  Lodge,  268—270, 
284-287. 

c.  Fierce  opposition  to  Peter  from  nobles,  actuated  by  strong 
Russian  feeling,  and  from  adherents  of  old  ecclesiastic 
order  of  things. 

d.  In  18th  century,  acquisition  of  Baltic  provinces  from  Swe- 
den (1717-21),  of  Black  Sea  region  from  Turkey  (1792), 
and  of  Poland  by  divisions  with  Prussia  and  Austria  (1772, 
1793,1795).  Rambaud,  II,  42-47,  94,  95,  117-126.  Lodge, 
448,  460,  471. 

e.  In  19th  century,  acquisition  of  Finland  and  the  rest  of  the 
northern  coast  of  Black  Sea,  Georgia,  Persian  Armenia, 
Southern  Turkestan. 

f.  Alexander  I,  Czar  1801-25.  Overthrow  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte began  with  his  invasion  of  Russia,  1812.  Alexander, 
founder  of  Holy  Alliance  (Russia,  Austria,  Prussia),  1815, 
to  suppress  rebellions  against  monarchy. 

"Almighty  Wisdom,  in  dividing  the  universe  into  different  countries,  has  assigned  to 
each  a  sovereign  into  whose  hands  the  reins  of  absolute  authority  over  the  nations  subject 
to  his  dominion  are  placed."    Utterance  of  Congress  of  the  Alliance  at  Laibach,  1821* 

Liberal  domestic  policy.     Polish  disaffection  and  separate 
constitution,  1818.     Mutter,  86. 

3.  Nicholas  I,  Czar,  1825-55.  Rambaud,  II,  226,  227;  254. 
Change  from  the  policy  of  Peter  the  Great ;  Russian  forms  and  cus- 
toms insisted  upon.  Rambaud,  II,  229-232.  European  influences 
checked.  Mutter,  86,  87.  Poland  made  a  part  of  Russian  empire, 
1832.     Fyffe,  II,  390-398.     Rambaud,  II,  238-243. 

"  The  late  insurrection  of  Poland  had  determined  Russia  to  put  an  end  to  its  separate 
existence,  and  reduce  it  as  much  as  possible  to  a  Russian  province.  The  University  of 
Warsaw  was  suppressed,  the  archives,  libraries,  scientific  collections,  etc.,  were  removed 
to  St.  Petersburg,  the  Polish  uniform  and  colors  were  abolished,  and  the  Polish  soldiery 
incorporated  into  Russian  regiments.  The  leading  Poles  were  relegated  to  the  interior  of 
the  Empire,  and  it  is  computed  that  80,000  Poles  were  banished  to  Siberia.  Polish  children 
were  taken  from  their  parents  and  carried  into  the  military  colonies  of  Russia.  Last,  but 
hot  least,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  persecuted  agreeably  to  the  Czar's  Grsco- 
Russian  system."    Ewald,  82. 

4.  The  Crimean  war,  1854-56.  Rambaud,  II,  248-258.  Ruin  of 
Nicholas's  policy. 

5.  Alexander  II,  1855-81.     Rambaud,  II,  255. 

a.  More  liberal  policy.  Rambaud,  II,  258,  259.  Mutter, 
267. 

b.  1861,  gradual  emancipation  of  the  serfs  ;  23  millions  set 
free.     Wallace,  485-509.      Grant  Duff:  Studies  in  Euro- 


'47 

pean  Politics,  71-85.    Rambaud,  II,  260-266.    Lodge,  746. 

Mailer,  26  7. 
"  By  this  decree  the  peasants  attached  to  the  soil  were  to  be  invested  with  all  the  rights 
of  free-cultivators  ;  the  proprietors  to  grant  to  the  peasants  for  a  fixed  regulated  rental  the 
full  enjoyment  of  their  holdings,  after  a  term  of  years  the  peasants  to  become  full  owners  ; 
domestics  to  receive  their  full  enfranchisement  two  years  hence.  To  assist  these  measures 
in  each  district  a  court  was  to  be  established  for  the  question  of  the  peasants  ;  justices  of 
the  peace  were  to  be  appointed  in  each  district  to  investigate  on  the  spot  all  disputes  ;  com- 
munal administrations  were  to  be  organized  in  the  seigneurial  properties  ;  a  charter  of 
rules  was  to  be  confirmed  in  each  district  in  which  were  to  be  enumerated  the  amount  of 
land  to  be  reserved  to  the  peasants  in  permanent  enjoyment,  and  the  extent  of  the  charges 
to  be  exacted  from  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  proprietor.  These  charters  were  to  be  put 
into  execution  within  the  term  of  two  years  up  to  which  time  the  peasants  and  domestics 
were  to  fulfil  their  former  obligations  without  scruple."     Ewald,  170. 

c.  Growth  of  Nihilism,  1871-81,  the  result  of  social  upheaval 
of  emancipation  ;  1871-77,  demand  for  immediate  re-organ- 
ization of  State  on  Socialistic  basis  ;  1877-81,  attempt  to 
revenge  the  governmental  prosecutions,  and  to  terrorize 
Government  by  assassination  ;  demands  for  a  constitution  ; 
the  secret  police  ;  transportation  to  Siberia.  Muller,  569- 
572. 

d.  War  with  Turkey,  1877-78. 

Effort  to  divert  attention  of  Nihilists  by  foreign  war,  and 
to  establish  Russia's  position  as  protector  of  Southern  Slavs. 
Bulgaria  set  free.  Annexation  of  Bessarabia.  Progress 
of  Russia  towards  Constantinople  checked  by  England. 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  1878. 

(1)  Renewed  Nihilist  activity.  In  1879-80,  60,000  polit- 
ical prisoners  sent  to  Siberia  without  trial,  and  on  suspi- 
cion alone. 

e.  Assassination  of  the  Czar,  March  13,  1881.     Muller,  574. 

6.  Alexander  111,  1881. 

Policy  of  consolidating  Empire  upon  Russian  basis,  by  — 

a.  Opposition  to  use  of  any  language  but  Russian. 

b.  Opposition  to  freedom  of  worship  for  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics. 

c.  Persecution  of  Jews. 

d.  Strict  supervision  of  education  in  interest  of  Autocratic 
Government  and  of  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia. 

7.  Central  government  of  the  empire.      Wallace,  194-212. 

a.  The  Emperor ;  absolute  hereditary  monarchy. 

b.  The  four  councils  or  colleges.  Statesman's  Year  Book, 
1888,  p,  413. 

(1)  Council  of  the  Empire,  consultative  body,  members 
appointed  by  Czar. 


48 


(2)  Ruling  Senate,  a  superior  court  of  appeal. 

(3)  Holy  Synod,  since  1700,  superior  authority  of  the 
National  Church,  and  controlled  by  the  Procurator,  the 
representative  of  the  civil  power. 

(4)  Committee  of  Ministers. 

"  In  its  present  form  the  Russian  administration  seems  at  first  sight  a  very  imposing 
edifice.  At  the  top  of  the  pyramid  stands  the  Emperor,  the  '  autocratic  monarch,'  as  Peter 
the  Great  described  him,  who  has  to  give  an  account  of  his  acts  to  no  one  on  earth,  but  has  a 
power  and  authority  to  rule  his  states  and  lands  as  a  Christian  sovereign  according  to  his 
own  will  and  judgment.  Immediately  below  the  Emperor  we  see  the  Council  of  State, 
the  Committee  of  Ministers,  and  the  Senate,  which  represent  respectively  the  legislative, 
the  administrative,  and  the  judicial  power.  An  Englishman  glancing  over  the  first  volume 
of  the  code  might  imagine  the  Council  of  State  to  be  a  kind  of  parliament,  and  the  Com- 
mittee of  Ministers  a  ministry  in  our  sense  of  the  term,  but  in  reality  both  are  simply 
incarnations  of  the  autocratic  form.  Though  the  Council  is  intrusted  by  law  with  many 
important  functions,  such  as  examining  and  criticising  the  annual  budget,  declaring  war, 
concluding  peace,  etc.,  it  has  merely  a  consultative  character,  and  the  Emperor  is  not  hi 
any  way  bound  by  its  decisions.  The  ministers  are  all  directly  and  individually  respon- 
sible to  the  Emperor,  and  therefore  the  Committee  has  no  common  responsibility  or  other 
cohesive  force.  As  to  the  Senate,  it  has  descended  from  its  high  estate.  It  was  originally 
intrusted  with  the  supreme  power  during  the  absence  or  minority  of  the  monarch,  and  was 
intended  to  exercise  a  controlling  influence  in  all  sections  of  the  administration,  but  now 
its  activity  is  restricted  to  judicial  matters,  and  it  is  little  more  than  a  supreme  court  of 
appeal."     Wallace,  197, 198. 

c.  Tchinovniks,  or   the   Bureaucracy,  the  civil  and  military 
service  of  the  empire.      Wallace,  200-212.     Stepniak,  94- 
101. 
8.  Local  government. 

a.  Empire  divided  into  general  governments,  governments  or 
provinces,  and  districts  ;  the  officers  and  their  functions. 
Statesman's  Tear  Book,  1888,  p.  415. 

b.  The  Zemstvos  for  a  more  general  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  the  district  and  province.      Wallace,  213-228. 

(1)  District  Zemstvos  elected  by  landlords,  towns-folk,  and 
peasants. 

(2)  Provincial  Zemstvos,  formed  of  delegates  from  each 
District  Zemstvos. 

Supreme  influence  of  Governor  of  the  province. 

c.  Municipal  self-government  in  towns  since  1870. 

Control  of  Governor. 

d.  The  Mir  (parish  or  commune).  Wallace,  118-137.  Tikh- 
omirov,  I,  115-127.  Rambaud,  I,  41,  42  ;  power  limited  as 
to  economic  affairs. 

"  In  European  Russia  the  government  of  the  parish,  in  so  far  as  the  lands  of  the  peasan- 
try are  concerned,  and  part  of  the  local  administration  are  intrusted  to  the  people.  For 
this  purpose,  the  whole  country  is  divided  intocommunes,  which  elect  an  elder,  or  execu- 
tive of  a  commune,  as  also  a  tax  collector  or  superintendent  of  public  stores.  All  these 
officers  are  elected  at  communal  assemblies  by  the  peasants  from  among  themselves.    The 


49 


offices  are  more  or  less  honorary.  The  communal  assemblies  are  constituted  by  all  the 
householders  in  the  village,  who  discuss  and  decide  all  communal  affairs.  These  communal 
assemblies  are  held  as  business  requires.  The  communes  are  united  into  cantons,  each 
embracing  a  population  of  about  2000  males.  Each  canton  is  presided  over  by  an  Elder, 
elected  at  the  cantonal  assemblies,  which  are  composed  of  the  delegates  of  the  communal 
assemblies  in  proportion  of  one  man  to  every  ten  houses.  The  canton  assemblies  decide 
the  same  class  of  affairs  as  do  the  communal  assemblies,  but  each  concerning  its  respective 
canton.  The  peasants  have  thus  special  institutions  of  their  own,  which  are  submitted 
also  to  special  colleges  for  peasants'  affairs,  instituted  in  each  government."  Statesman's 
Year  Book,  415,  416. 

9.  Grand  duchy  of  Finland,  ceded  by  Sweden,  1809  ;  only  province 
of  European  Russia  not  fully  incorporated  into  empire. 

a.  National  Parliament  convoked  once  in  four  or  five  years, 
has  control  of  taxation. 

b.  Senate,  at  head  of  judicial  and  administrative  service  of 
Finland. 

c.  Grand  duke,  —  the  Czar. 

10.  Poland,  under  separate  administration  from  rest  of  empire, 
1815-64.  Rebellions,  1830-32,  1863.  Absolute  incorporation  with 
Russia,  1868.     Muller,  142,  399,  400. 

11.  Journalism  and  public  opinion  in  Russia. 

The  Censorship.      Tikhomirov,  II,  93-97,  279-284. 

12.  Political  parties  in  Russia.      Tikhomirov,  II,  141-147. 

a.  Panslavism,  or  the  Slavophils.      Wallace,  416-420. 

b.  Katkoff  and  the  Moscow  Gazette.      Conlemp.  Review,  Oct., 
1887,  pp.  504-522. 

c.  The  Russian  Peasants.     Stepniak. 

See  also  article  in  Fortnightly  Review,  1886,  vol.  40,  pp. 
595-604. 

d.  Nihilism  and  Democracy. 


LECTURES   X-XI. 


THE  AISTRO-HI  \<URIl\  MONARCHY. 

References  :  Grant  Duff:  Studies  in  European  Politics,  ch.  iii. 
Francis  Dedk :  A  Memoir.  Laveleye  :  The  Balkan  Penin- 
sula. A.  Vambery :  The  Story  of  Hungary.  A.  B.  Malleson : 
Life  of  Prince  Metternich. 


50 


Area :  Austria,  115,903  sq.  mi.;  popul.,  22.5  m.  Hungary,  125,039 
sq.  mi.;  popul.,  16J  m.  Austria  nearly  twice  as  large  as  New  Eng- 
land. 

A.     The  supremacy  of  Austria,  1815-67. 

1.  Destruction  of  old  German  empire  by  Napoleon  J,  in  1806. 
Francis,  Archduke  of  Austria,  head  of  Hapsburg  House,  which  had 
held  dignity  of  German  Emperor  since  1438,  declared  Emperor  of 
Austria,  1806. 

2.  Austrian  dominions  included  (1815)  Hungary  and  its  depend- 
encies, Galicia,  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  Venice  and  Lombardy  in  Italy, 
and  Austrian  influence  reigned  in  all  Italian  States  except  in  the 
kingdom  of  Piedmont,  or  Sardinia. 

3.  At  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  Germanic  Confedera- 
tion was  formed  (June  10,  1815)  ;  39  states  and  four  free  cities;  per- 
manent Diet  at  Frankfort.  Grant  Duff:  Studies  in  European  Poli- 
tics, 257-260.  J.  JR.  Seeley :  Life  and  Times  of  Stein  (Tauchnitz 
ed.),  IV,  31.  Austria  predominant  in  the  confederation.  Timid  policy 
of  Prussia. 

4.  The  Constitution  of  the  Confederation. 

a.  Agreement  of  states  not  to  declare  war  against  each  other 
or  form  injurious  alliances. 

b.  Disputes  between  states  to  be  referred  to  central  Diet. 

c.  To  contribute  to  confederate  army  according  to  population. 

d.  Certain  military  forts  made  the  property  of  the  confedera- 
tion. 

e.  Constitutional  government  to  be  established  in  each  state. 
f.  Weakness   of  the  constitution  ;  people  not  represented  in 

central  Diet. 
g.  Chief  purpose  of  Austrian  policy, —  to  prevent  any  more 
revolutions. 

"  There  were  two  things  of  which  they  were  mortally  afraid,  Russia  and  the  revolution." 
Grant  Duff. 

Prominence  in  the  Holy  Alliance.     (See  Lecture  IX.) 

5.  Metternich  (1815-48),  reactionary  statesman  of  Austria,  lead- 
ing champion  of  arbitrary  government  in  Europe.  Muller,220,  221. 
Lodge,  609,  622,  637,  651,669,  688.  McCarthy,  II,  338.  Grant  Duff, 
143-144. 

"  Metternich  described  his  system  with  equal  simplicity  and  precision  as  an  attempt 
neither  to  innovate  nor  to  go  back  to  the  past,  but  to  keep  things  as  they  were.  In 
the  old  Austrian  dominions  this  was  not  so  difficult  to  do,  for  things  had  no  tendency  to 
move,  and  remained  fixed  of  themselves  ;  but  on  the  outside,  both  on  the  north  and  on  the 
south,  ideas  were  at  work,  which,  according  to  Metternich,  ought  never  to  have  entered 
the  world,  but,  having  unfortunately  gained  admittance,  made  it  the  task  of  Govern^ 


51 


ments  to  resist  their  influence  by  all  available  means.  Stein  and  the  leaders  of  the  Prus- 
sian War  of  Liberation  had  agitated  Germany  with  hopes  of  national  unity,  of  Parlia- 
ments, and  of  the  impulsion  of  the  executive  powers  of  state  by  public  opinion.  Against 
these  northern  innovators  Metternich  had  already  won  an  important  victory  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Federal  Constitution.  The  weakness  and  timidity  of  the  king  of  Prussia 
made  it  probable  that,  although  he  was  now  promising  his  subjects  a  Constitution,  he 
might  at  no  distant  date  be  led  to  unite  with  other  German  Governments  in  a  system  of 
repression,  and  in  placing  Liberalism  under  the  ban  of  the  Diet.  In  Italy,  according  to 
the  conservative  statesman,  the  same  dangers  existed  and  the  same  remedies  were  re- 
quired."   Fyffe,  II,  82. 

a.  Austria's  condition  under  Metternich's  methods. 

"  Austria  must  make  herself  felt,  not  by  her  military  strength,  but  through  the  skill  of 
her  diplomats  and  the  omnipresence  of  her  police  and  her  spies.  This  was  Metternich's 
chosen  field,  while  the  emperor  found  his  pleasure  in  the  details  of  the  police  system, 
which  was  developed  under  him  into  a  system  of  espionage  of  the  most  unworthy  sort. 
This  was,  however,  admirably  adapted  to  that  patriarchal  system  in  accordance  with 
Which  the  government,  so  far  from  denying  its  Oriental  views,  even  dared  to  inculcate  on 
its  subjects  the  doctrine  that  the  sovereign  '  has  full  powers  over  their  lives  and  property.' 
No  less  care  was  exercised  in  shutting  up  Austria  against  other  lands.  The  influx  of  for- 
eign intellects  and  intellectual  products  Was  guarded  against  like  the  smuggling  in  of  the 
cattle  plague.  Study  in  foreign  universities  was  forbidden.  The  entrance  into  Austrian 
schools  of  foreign  teachers,  and  of  scholars  over  ten  years  of  age,  was  forbidden,  and  even 
for  younger  children  special  permission  had  to  be  obtained.  The  imparting  of  private 
instruction  was  rendered  very  difficult,  permission  being  granted  by  the  police  only  under 
oppressive  conditions,  and  even  revocable  every  six  years.  All  political  literature ,  as  well 
as  modern  histories,  was  subjected  to  strict  censorship,  with  a  view  to  police  prohibition. 

And  as  for  popular  instruction,  scarcely  three  fifths  of  the  children  of 

school  age  attended  school,  and  those  who  attended  were,  with  the  teachers,  confined  to  a 
mechanical  drill  from  which  the  why  and  wherefore  were  carefully  excluded.  The  object 
Was  not  to  produce  savants,  but  subjects  and  officials  trained  to  blind  obedience.  For  this 
purpose  no  guard  and  overseer  could  be  more  effective  than  the  clergy.  Upon  their  relig- 
ious certificate  decoded  every  advance  in  the  gymnasiums  and  universities,  and  confession 
was  exacted  from  teachers  and  scholars  six  times  yearly.  It  will  be  readily  understood 
that  the  Protestants  were  much  oppressed,  —  hardly  tolerated.  Upon  purchasing  a  house, 
upon  assuming  a  trade,  they  were  obliged  to  apply  for  a  dispensation.  To  enter  the  mili- 
tary academy  in  Vienna-Neustadt,  they  must  abjure  their  religion."    Mailer,  5, 6, 

6.  Metternich  and  Austria  antagonized  by  — 

a.  German    Liberals   desiring  Constitutional  government   in 
Germany. 

b.  Italian  patriots,  desiring  freedom  and  unity  of  Italy. 

<c.  Magyars  (or  Hungarians),  desiring  to  free  Hungary  from 

Austrian  control. 
d.  Slavs,  of   Hungary  and  Galicia,   hostile  both   to  Austrian 

Germans  and  Hungarian  Magyars. 

7.  In  Germany,  agitation  among  the  students  and  the  Karlsbad 
conference,  1820.  Seeley :  Stein,  IV,  148,  149.  Under  leadership  of 
Metternich,  agreement  was  made  to  — 

a.  Restrict  freedom  of  press. 

b.  Restrict  university  teaching. 

c.  Forbid  societies   and  political  meetings.      Midler,   12-18. 
Lodge,  638. 


52 


8.  Rebellions  against  despotism  in  Italy,  1821, 1831,  suppressed  by 
Austrian  troops. 

a.  Revolutionary  agitation  in  Germany  checked  by  Austria, 
1833. 

9.  Hungary,  including  Transylvania,  Croatia  and  Slavonia  (town 
of  Fiume),  separate  kingdom,  with  a  constitution  dating  from  891. 
Vambery,  9,  10.  Diet  of  two  houses  must,  by  constitution,  be  con- 
voked every  three  years. 

Austrian  disregard  of  Hungarian  laws.      Vambery,  398,  399. 

a.  Metternich  yielded  to  Magyar  discontent  in  view  of  possible 
complications  with  Russia  over  Greek  war  for  independence. 
Hungarian  Diet  convened  at  Presburg  (for  first  time  in  nine- 
teen years),  1825. 

Emperor  Francis  disavows  tyranny  of  his  officers. 

b.  Szechenyi.  Francis  Dedk,  8.    Vambery  s  Hungary,  400-41 1 , 

*•'  Great  schemes  of  social  and  material  improvement  also  aroused  the  public  hopes  in 
these  years.  The  better  minds  became  conscious  of  the  real  aspect  of  Hungarian  life  in 
comparison  with  that  of  civilized  Europe, —  of  its  poverty,  its  inertia,  its  boorishness. 
Extraordinary  energy  was  thrown  into  the  work  of  advance  by  Count  Szechenyi,  a  noble- 
man whose  imagination  had  been  fired  by  the  contrast  which  the  busy  industry  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  practical  interests  of  its  higher  classes  presented  to  the  torpor  of  his  own 
country.  It  is  to  him  thai  Hungary  owes  the  bridge  uniting  its  double  capital  at  Pesth, 
and  that  Europe  owes  the  unimpeded  navigation  of  the  Danube,  which  he  first  rendered 
possible  by  the  destruction  of  the  rocks  known  as  the  Iron  Gates,  at  Orsova.  Sanguine, 
lavishly  generous,  an  ardent  patriot,  Szechenyi  endeavored  to  arouse  men  of  his  own 
rank,  the  great  and -powerful  in  Hungary,  to  the  sense  of  what  was  due  from  them  to 
their  country  as  leaders  in  its  industrial  development.  He  was  no  revolutionist,  nor  was 
he  an  enemy  to  Austria.  A  peaceful,  political  future  would  best  have  accorded  with  his 
own  designs  for  raising  Hungary  to  its  due  place  among  the  nations."    Fyffe,  II,  481,  482. 

10.  Death  of  Emperor  Francis  I,  and  succession  of  Ferdinand,  a 
weak  ruler,  1835.  Muller,  163.  Lodge,  688,  797.  Grant  Duff,  150, 
151. 

11.  Revolution  in  France,  1848  ;  spread  through  Europe  ;  uprisings 
in  Hungary  and  in  all  parts  of  Italy.  Muller,  186-191,  203-211. 
Lodge,  682-686. 

a.  Revolution  in  Vienna.  Lodge,  696.  Flight  of  Metternich, 
abdication  of  Ferdinand  in  favor  of  Francis  Joseph  1, 1848. 
Muller,  221-230.    Lodge,  688-690.     Grant  Duff,  158-164. 

b.  March,  1848,  resolves  of  meeting  at  Frankfort  to  call  a 
national  German  constituent  assembly.  Muller,  221-230, 
239.     Lodge,  690.      Grant  Duff,  260,  261. 

c.  May,  1848,  formation  of  a  German  National  Assembly 
{Miiller,  215),  and  dissolution  of  old  confederate  Diet. 
Lodge,  702. 


53 


d.  New  constitution  for  the  German  Empire,  and  offer  of  im- 
perial dignity  to  Prussia.  Opposition  of  Austria,  Bavaria, 
and  WiirtemburtJ-.     King  of  Prussia  declines  the  offer. 

e.  Two  parties  in  Germany. 

(1)  The  Kleindeutsche  party,  wishing  Prussia  to  be  at  the 
head  of  the  Confederation  to  the  exclusion  of  Austria. 

(2)  The  Great  German  (Grossdeutsche)    party,    favoring 
the  inclusion  of  Austria.     Mutter,  231. 

f.  Rupture  between  Prussia  and  Austria.  Czar  Nicholas  of 
Russia  interferes  on  side  of  Austria.  End  of  Assembly 
and  new  Constitution,  1851.  Restoration  of  old  Diet  and 
the  Confederation  of  1815. 

12.  Austria  conquers  kingdom  of  Sardinia  (Charles  Albert),  which 
had  taken  sides  with  anti- Austrian  party  in  Italy.     Mutter,  203-211. 

13.  Uprising  of  Magyars,  1848-49  ;  demand  of  Hungary  for  inde- 
pendence conceded  by  establishment  of  separate  ministry  for  Hun- 
gary, 1848.  Intrigues  of  Austrian  Court  against  its  Hungarian 
ministers.  Dedk,  85-92.  McCarthy,  I,  382-387.  Miltter,  241-248. 
Lodge,  695-698.  Grant  Duff,  152-157.  Burdens  of  the  peasantry. 
Dedk.  17-20. 

a.  Rupture  between  Hungarian  Diet  and  Francis  Joseph,  the 
new  Emperor  of  Austria.  Francis  Joseph  disregards  Diet's 
right  to  elect  the  King  of  Hungary.     Dedk,  100-105. 

b.  Kossuth. 

"  On  emerging  from  prison  under  a  general  amnesty  in  1840,  Kossuth  undertook  the 
direction  of  a  Magyar  journal  at  Pesth,  which  at  once  gained  an  immense  influence 
throughout  the  country.  The  spokesman  of  a  new  generation,  Kossuth  represented  an 
entirely  different  order  of  ideas  from  those  of  the  orthodox  defenders  of  the  Hungarian 
Constitution.  They  had  been  conservative  and  aristocratic  ;  he  Was  revolutionary  ;  their 
weapons  had  been  drawn  from  the  storehouse  of  Hungarian  positive  law  ;  his  inspiration 
was  from  the  Liberalism  of  western  Europe.  Thus  within  the  national  party  itself  there 
grew  up  sections  in  more  or  less  pronounced  antagonism  to  one  another,  though  all  were 
united  by  a  passionate  devotion  to  Hungary,  and  by  an  unbounded  faith  in  its  future. 
Szechenyi,  and  those  who  with  him  subordinated  political  to  material  ends,  regarded  Kos- 
suth as  a  dangerous  theorist."    Fyffe,  II,  483. 

c.  Deak.  Francis  Dedk:  a  Memoir,  with  Preface  by  Grant 
Duff.     See  in  particular  ch.  iii. 

"  Between  the  more  impetuous  and  the  more  cautious  reformers  stood  the  recognized 
Parliamentary  leaders  of  the  Liberals,  among  whom  Deak  had  already  given  proof  of 
political  capacity  of  no  mean  order."     Fyffe,  II,  484. 

d.  Successful  appeal  of  the  Austrian  government  to  Russia  to 
assist  in  putting  down  the  rebellion.     Dedk,  ch.  14. 

e.  Suppression  of  revolt ;  repression  of  revolutionary  senti- 
ment ;  arbitrary  treatment  of  Hungary  by  Austrian  govern- 
ment. 


64 

14.  War  of  Austria  with  France  and  Sardinia,  1859. 

a.  Attempt  of  Austria  to  gain  assistance  of  the  other  states  of 
the  confederation  ;  checked  by  Prussia.  Mutter,  278-280. 
Lodge,  719. 

b.  Austria  unsuccessful ;  loss  of  Lombardy  ;  retention  of 
Venetia. 

15.  Schleswig-Holstein  question.  Mutter,  213-219,  267,  309-326. 
Lodge,  690,  691,  709,  727.     McCarthy,  II,  244-253. 

16.  Austro-Prussian  war,  1866. 

a.  Causes.  Mutter,  335-355.  Lodge,  729,  730.  McCarthy, 
II,  336. 

"The  desire  of  the  German  people  for  greater  unity,  and  the  impossibility  of  reaching 
a  re-organization  of  Germany  with  a  strong  central  government,  as  long  as  two  great  pow* 
ers  confronted  one  another  in  the  German  Confederation,  one  having  a  population  largely 
non-Germanic,  with  non-Germanic  interests. 

"  Special  cause  :  the  quarrel  about  the  future  of  the  North  Albingian  duchies.  Austria 
Wished  the  Crown  Prince  of  Augustenberg  to  be  recognized  as  Duke  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, and  join  the  confederation  as  a  sovereign  prince.  PrusBia  demanded  that  in  case  a 
hew  small  Btate,  Schleswig-Holstein,  was  created : 

(1)  '  Its  whole  military  force  should  become  an  integral  part  of  the  Prussian  army  and 
fleet,  and  its  postal  and  telegraph  systems  be  united  With  those  of  Prussia  ; 

(2)  '  That  several  important  military  posts  should  be  given  to  Prussia,  to  enable  her  to 
undertake  the  necessary  protection  of  the  new  state  against  Denmark.' 

"  Reason  for  participation  of  Italy  in  the  war  ;  the  favorable  opportunity  of  acquiring 
Venice."    Plottz,  507. 

b.  Results  :  Peace  of  Prague.     Mutter,  355-357. 

(1)  -'  The  Emperor  of  Austria  recognised  the  dissolution  of  the  German  Confederation, 
and  consented  to  la  re-organization  of  Germany  without  Austria,  and  agreed  to  annexa- 
tions contemplated  by  Prussia.  A  special  Condition  secured  Saxony  from  an  alteration  of 
her  boundary. 

(2;  '•  Austria  transferred  to  Prussia  her  rights  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  with  the  reservation 
that  the  northern  district  of  Schleswig  should  be  re-united  with  Denmark,  should  inhabit- 
ants express  desire  for  such  re-union  by  free  popular  vote  (reservation  rescinded,  1878). 

(3)  "  Austria  paid  20  m.  rix  dollars  for  costs  of  the  war. 

(4)  "  At  request  of  Prussia,  Venice  was  ceded  to  Italy."     Ploetz,  510. 

17.  Complete  disorganization  of  Austria  after  the  war  of  1866. 
Financial  disorder.  Magyars,  under  Dedk,  refuse  aid  unless  their 
political  independence  is  recognized.  February  8,  1867,  Hungary's 
demands  conceded.  The  dual  empire  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  em- 
pire established.  Restoration  of  Magyar  constitution  of  1848.  Fran- 
cis Joseph  crowned  King  of  Hungary  at  Pesth.  Constitutional  gov- 
ernment fully  established  in  the  Cisleithian  Empire  (Austria  and 
dependencies),  as  well  as  in  the  Transleithian  kingdom  (Hungary  and 
dependencies).  Transylvania  and  Croatia  attached  to  Hungary. 
Perfection  of  a  federal  government  for  the  dual  monarchy. 

a.  Complete  overthrow  of  the  Metternich  system  of  internal 
administration  in  Austria.  Modification  of  legal  supremacy 
of  Roman  Catholic  Church. 


55 

"  The  constitution  of  1861  was  revised,  and  adopted  in  its  revised  form  on  the  21st  of 
December,  1867.  This  conferred  upon  the  people  and  their  representatives  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  greatest  importance,  — equality  of  all  citizens  before  the  law,  freedom  of 
Press,  right  of  associating  and  meeting,  complete  liberty  of  faith  and  conscience,  the  unre- 
stricted right  to  impose  taxes  and  levy  recruits,  etc The  marriage  law 

restored  civil  marriage  to  the  statute  book,  in  so  far  as  it  introduced  permissive  civil  mar- 
riage, depriving  the  clergy  of  all  jurisdiction  in  the  premises  and  conferring  it  upon  the 
courts.  The  school  law  took  the  control  of  education,  with  the  exception  of  religious  edu- 
cation, away  from  the  church,  and  gave  it  to  the  state.  The  interconfessional  law  regu- 
lated the  religious  obligations  of  children  in  case  of  mixed  marriages,  change  of  confes- 
sion, burials,  and  the  like.  By  the  concordat  the  children  of  one  Protestant  and  one 
Roman  Catholic  parent  must  be  educated  in  the  faith  of  the  latter  ;  by  the  new  law,  male 
children  followed  the  father,  and  female  the  mother."  Muller,  373,  375  :  see  also  Muller, 
484. 

18.  After  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78,  occupation  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  by  Austria,  1878.  Laveleye,  chs.  iii  and  iv.  Rebellion 
against  Austria  in  Herzegovina.     Muller,  553,  555,  587. 

a.  Intimate  relations  between  Austro-Hungary  and  the  Ger- 
man Empire  date  from  Berlin  Congress  of  1878.  Bismarck's 
desire  to  see  Austro-Hungary  powerful  in  the  Balkan  region. 
Muller,  587,  588. 

b.  Hatred  of  Hungarians  for  Russia. 

c.  The  subject  Slavs.     Bishop  Strossmayer.     Laveleye,  ch.  ii. 

19.  Central  government. 

The  Cisleithian  empire  and  the  Transleithian  kingdom  are  united 
under  the  hereditary  rule  of  the  House  of  Austria  (Hapsburg)  ;  each 
realm  has  its  own  parliament,  ministers,  and  government;  while  the 
connecting  tie  is  a  common  sovereign,  army,  navy,  diplomacy,  and  a 
common  parliament  called  the  Delegations.  Statesman's  Year  Book,  6. 
Dedk,  ch.  29. 

a.  The  Delegations,  120  members,  chosen  by  the  Parliaments 
of  each  kingdom,  one  half  from  each  kingdom,  have  juris- 
diction over  foreign  affairs,  common  finances,  and  war. 

b.  The  three  executive  departments,  Foreign  Affairs,  War,  and 
Finance,  responsible  to  the  Delegations  ;  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  chief  officer  of  the  monarchy. 

20.  Local  government. 

A.  Austria. 
1.  The  Constitution  of  1867.     Lodge,  731,  732. 
a.  Provincial  Diets. 

(1)  17  provinces,  each  having  a  Diet  of  one  assembly. 

(2)  Members  of  the  Diet :  (a)  archbishops  and  bishops ; 
(b)  representatives  of  great  estates  ;  (c)  representatives 
of  towns  ;  (d)  representatives  of  boards  of  commerce  and 
guilds  ;  (e)  representatives  of  rural  communes. 


56 


(3)  Functions :  local  administration,  taxation,  agriculture, 
educational  and  charitable  institutions,  public  works. 

b.  Central  Diet,  or  Reichsrath. 

(1)  Upper  House,  or  Herren-haus  ;  consists,  1st,  of  the 
princes  of  the  Imperial  family  (13)  ;  2d,  of  a  number  of 
nobles  (53),  possessing  large  landed  property,  in  whose 
families  the  dignity  is  hereditary  ;  3d,  of  the  archbishops 
(10),  and  bishops  (7),  who  are  of  princely  title,  inherent 
in  their  episcopal  seat ;  4th,  of  any  other  life-members 
nominated  by  the  Emperor,  on  account  of  being  distin- 
guished in  art  or  science,  or  rendering  signal  services  to 
Church  or  State  (105).     Statesman's  Tear  Book,  7. 

(2)  Lower  House  or  Abgeordneten-haus,  353  members, 
elected  by  citizens,  24  years  of  age,  and  possessing  small 
property  qualifications. 

c.  Executive    Ministers,   eight   departments,  Council  of   the 
Emperor,  responsible  to  Reichsrath  since  1870. 

B.    Hungary. 

1.  The  Constitution  of  1867;  Francis  Deak.     Beak,  259-269. 

a.  Legislative  power  rests  in  King  and  Parliament  (Reichs- 
tag).    Two  Houses. 

(1)  House  of  Magnates,  hereditary  peers  (286);  represent- 
atives of  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  and  Protestant  churches 
(51)  ;  life-Peers  (50)  ;  officers  of  state  (16)  ;  delegate 
from  Croatia-Slavonia  (1)  ;  Archdukes  (20). 

(2)  House  of  Representatives,  453,  including  40  from  Croa- 
tia-Slavonia, elected  by  citizens  20  years  old,  with  small 
property  qualifications. 

b.  Executive  Ministry,  responsible,  nine  departments. 
The  Croats. 

2.  Local  Diet  at  Agram,  for  Croatia-Slavonia,  granted  by  Hungary 
(influence  of  Deak),  1868  ;  control  of  local  affairs  ;  55  per  cent  of 
revenues  paid  into  Hungarian  treasury. 

a.  Chief  Executive  of  Croatia-Slavonia  (title  of  Ban)  appointed 
by  King  of  Hungary.     Beak,  284,  285. 

b.  Parties  in  Croatia  and  political  purposes.  Laveleye,  151-166. 
20.   Political  parties  and  tendencies. 

a.  The  Czech  (Tschek)  movement ;  to  establish  an  autonomous 
government  for  Bohemia  like  that  of  Hungary.      Contem- 


57 


porary  Review,  Dec,  1884,  pp.  815-819.     Known  as  the 
Autonomists,  or  Federalists.     Mutter,  483,  588. 

b.  Panslavism.     Laveleye:  Balkan  Peninsula,  3,  4;   171,  172. 

c.  Parties  in  Lower  House  of  Austrian  Reichsrath  actuated  by 
racial  antagonisms. 


(1)  German  party,  .     .     . 

(2)  German-Austrian  party, 

(3)  Center  party,     .     .     . 

(4)  German  clerical  party, 

(5)  Czech  party,       .     .     . 

(6)  Polish  party,      .     .     . 

(7)  Slavonic  party,  .     .     . 

(8)  Italian  party,      .     .     . 

(9)  Trentino  party,  .     .     . 

(10)  Croatian  party,  .     .     . 

(11)  Ruthenian  party,    .     . 

(12)  Anti-Semitic  party. 

(13)  "Wilde"  (Free-lance)  party. 


Moderatelyliberal,  weak- 
ened by  its  opposition  to 
occupation  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  1879. 


Conservative. 


LECTURES   XII-XIII. 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  ANI>  THE  REVOLTED  CHRISTIAN 
STATES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA  — 

MONTENEGRO,  ROUMANIA,  GREECE,  SERVIA,  BULGARIA. 

References  :    Laveleye :  The  Balkan  Peninsula.      R.  G.  Latham  : 
Russian  and   Turk.     Lewis   Sergeant:  New   Greece.     Lane- 
Poole  :  Turkey  ;  Story  of  the  Nations  Series.   David  Urquhart : 
The  Spirit  of  the  East,  2  vols. 
A.  Empire  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  to  1878. 
1.  Early  history  of  the  Turks. 


58 


%.  The  Ottoman  Turks  appeared  in  history  in  1240;  gradu- 
ally acquired  province  after  province  from  the  old  Eastern 
Roman  empire ;  finally  established  themselves  in  Constan- 
tinople in  1453.  Lodge,  19.  Fisher:  Outlines  of  Universal 
History,  352,  353. 

b.  About  1550,  the  kingdom  of  the  Turks  reached  its  greatest 
power,  including  all  Asia  Minor  to  the  Persian  frontier  ; 
Arabia,  Egypt,  and  all  North  Africa  to  Morocco  ;  the  whole 
Balkan  peninsula,  from  the  southernmost  extremity  of 
Greece  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Poland,  including  all  but 
the  extreme  western  portion  of  Hungary,  and  including  the 
Tatar  regions  along  the  north  shore  of  the  Black  Sea ; 
1683,  siege  of  Vienna;  Hungary  recovered  by  Austria, 
1682-99;  Barbary  states  of  North  Africa  become  only 
nominally  dependent  during  17th  and  18th  centuries  ;  Mon- 
tenegro (Czernagora)  rebelled  successfully,  1700.  Lodge, 
208,  209.  Shifting  of  territory  between  Turkey,  Austria, 
and  Russia,  1768-74,  Catharine's  first  war  against  Tur- 
key, by  which  Russia  gained  territory  in  the  Crimea,  and 
right  of  navigation  for  trading  vessels  on  the  Black  Sea. 
Fyffe,  II,  258.  Lodge,  449.  McCarthy,  I,  453-455.  Wal- 
lachia  and  Moldavia  restored  to  native  rulers,  for  whom 
Russia  was  henceforth  to  be  the  Protector  at  Constantinople. 
War  closed  by  peace  of  Kutschouc  Kainardji.  Fyffe,  II, 
259,  260  ;  six  important  points  in  this  treaty.     Ploetz,  412. 

(1)  The  Tatars  were  released  from  allegiance  to  Turkey, 
and  brought  under  Russian  influence. 

(2)  Russia  obtained  a  firm  footing  on  the  north  coasts  of 
the  Black  Sea  (Crimea),  pushing  back  the  Turkish  fron- 
tier to  the  river  Boug. 

(3)  The  frontier  line  between  the  two  powers  in  Asia  was 
left  much  as  it  was  before  the  war. 

(4)  Russia  stipulated  for  an  embassy  at  Constantinople, 
and  for  certain  privileges  for  Christians  in  Turkey. 

(5)  Russia  exacted  promises  for  the  better  government  of 
the  principalities,  reserving  the  right  of  remonstrance  if 
these  were  not  kept. 

(6)  Russia  obtained  a  declaration  of  her  right  of  free  com- 
mercial navigation  in  Turkish  waters.  All  subsequent 
controversies  between  the  Porte  and  Russia  may  be 
referred  to  one  of  these  six  heads.     Ploetz,  412. 


59 

e.  Gradual  encroachment  of  Russia  by  successive  wars.  From 
the  Boug  river  to  the  Dniester  (1792),  then  to  the  Pruth 
(1812).     Miiller,  89,90. 

Servia  partly  autonomous ;  England  becomes  diplomati- 
cally powerful  at  Constantinople;  Lord  Stratford  de  Red- 
cliffe.     N.  T.  Nation,  Dec.  27,  1888,  p.  522. 

d.  Egypt  becomes  only  nominally  dependent,  1811-41 ;  Mehe- 
met  Ali ;  England  forces  from  Turkey  a  promise  of  justice 
to  Christians,  an  empty  promise. 

2.  1821-29,  Greek  Independence.  Lodge,  650-656.  Fyffe,  II, 
268-280,  285-300,  305-312,  345.  Miller,  70-73.  For  the  Eastern 
question  in  general  before  the  Crimean  war,  see  McCarthy,  I,  433- 
46 L  For  a  sketch  of  the  previous  condition  of  Greece,  see  Fyffe,  II, 
237-262. 

a.  Russian  interference  after  accession  of  Nicholas  in  behalf 
of  Christian  subjects  of  Sultan.  Loss  of  territory  in  Arme- 
nia. Gradual  rise  of  Servia  and  the  Danubian  principali- 
ties. Treaties  of  Akerman  (1826),  of  London  (1827),  of 
Adrianople  (1829).    Latham  :  Russian  and  Turk,  48-5 1. 

b.  The  Turkish  Janissaries:  their  destruction,  1826.  Miiller,  88. 

3.  Crimean  war,   1853-56.      Miiller,  253-264.     Lodge,  743-745. 

a.  Causes :  ambition  of  Nicholas  I :  protectorate  over  all 
Christians  of  Greek  church.  Mc  Gar thy,  I,  47 5—517 '.  The 
Reign  of  Queen   Victoria,  I,  81-87. 

*'  The  guardianship  and  possession  of  certain  places  at  Jerusalem  were  for  many  years 
the  source  of  contest  between  Christians  belonging  to  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. 
These  spots,  known  as  Holy  Places,  are  hallowed  from  a  supposed  connection  with  our 
Saviour,  the  Virgin  Mary,  or  the  early  disciples.  Amongst  them  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  on  Mt.  Calvary,  in  which  the  sepulclu-e  of  Christ  is  said  to  exist,  occupies  a 
prominent  position.  In  1690,  this  Holy  Sepulchre  was  appropriated  to  the  Latins,  and 
though  other  Christians  might  enter  for  private  devotions,  the  Latins  alone  were  allowed 
to  celebrate  mass  therein.  It  afforded  constant  matter  of  dispute,  and  France  always 
appeared  as  champion  of  the  Latin  Church,  and  Russia  in  modern  times  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  Greek,  for  the  conflict  was  at  length  confined  to  these  rival  sects.  In  1740,  a 
treaty  was  signed  between  France  and  the  Porte,  having  special  reference  to  this  question. 
In  1757,  a  serious  outbreak  occurred  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  holy  sanctuaries  were  placed 
under  the  protection  of  the  Greek  monks.  Thus  the  rights  and  privileges  granted  to  the 
Latins  by  the  treaty  of  1740  were  gradually  encroached  upon  by  successive  decrees  issued 
at  Constantinople  in  favor  of  Greek  Christians.  For  many  years  these  matters  were 
fiercely  contested  at  Jerusalem.  In  1850,  the  French  government  directed  their  represent- 
ative at  Constantinople  to  effect  some  arrangement.  The  Turkish  Government  admitted 
the  justice  of  the  French  claims,  and  affairs  were  progressing  when  the  Emperor  Nicho- 
las, favoring  the  interests  of  the  Greek  Church,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Sultan,  requiring  his 
adherence  to  the  status  quo.  Pressed  by  these  formidable  rivals,  the  Sultan  knew  not  how 
to  act;  and  as  the  discussion  was  prolonged,  Nicholas  gradually  disclosed  his  real  inten- 
tions. An  arrangement  was  nearly  concluded  in  1852 ;  but  toward  the  close  of  the  year 
the  Czar  set  the  forces  of  his  empire  in  motion.  In  Feb.,  1853,  Prince  Menschikoff 
repaired  to  Constantinople,  as  extraordinary  ambassador  from  Russia  ;  and,  although  the 


60 


real  nature  of  his  mission  did  not  at  first  transpire,  it  soon  became  evident  that  the  ruin 
of  Turkey  was  intended."    Condensed  from  Ewald,  128, 129. 

"In  his  conferences  with  the  English  ambassador  in  St.  Petersburg,  Sir  Hamilton  Sey- 
mour, Nicholas  called  Turkey  a  "  sick  man,"  whom  no  doctor  could  help,  so  that  it  was 
already  time  to  come  to  some  definite  agreement  about  his  inheritance.  According  to  his 
plan,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Bosnia  were  to  be  made  independent  states,  and  with  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia,  to  be  placed  under  the  Russian  protectorate.  If  England  wished  to  appro- 
priate Egypt  and  Candia,  Russia  had  no  objection.  In  his  opinion,  England  and  Russia 
were  the  only  countries  concerned,  as  they  were  the  only  ones  who  had  a  tangible  interest 
in  Turkey,  and  if  they  agreed  about  the  transaction,  there  was  no  need  of  consulting  the 
other  powers."    Muller,  254. 

b.  Peace  of  Paris,  1856. 

(1)  Russia  ceded  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  a  small 
portion  of  Bessarabia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  lower 
Danube. 

(2)  Russia  renounced  the  one-sided  protectorate  over  the 
Christians  in  Turkey,  and  over  the  principalities  of  the 
Danube. 

(3)  Russia  restored  Kars,  and  promised  not  to  establish 
any  arsenals  upon  the  Black  Sea,  nor  to  maintain  there 
more  ships  than  the  Porte. 

(4)  The  Western  powers  restored  Sebastopol  to  Russia, 
after  having  destroyed  the  docks,  the  constructions  in  the 
harbor,  and  the  fortifications.  Ploetz,  501.  Lodge,  745. 
Muller,  264-266.     McCarthy,  I,  517-523. 

(5)  Promise  of  justice  to  Christians  renewed.  Hat  Huma- 
yun,  1856. 

"  England,  which  had  accomplished  nothing  grait,  either  at  sea  or  on  land,  was  regarded 
as  on  the  decline.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Russian  Empire,  Prince  Alexander  Gortschakoff , 
a  brother  of  the  General,  in  his  circular  of  Sept.  2,  1856,  described  Russia's  new  pro- 
gramme in  the  words,  •  Russia  does  not  repine,  she  collects  herself '  (La  Russie  ne  boude 
pas,  elle  se  recueille).  Against  Austria,  which  had  '  astonished  the  world  by  its  ingratitude,' 
Russia  cherished  a  most  bitter  grudge,  while  it  recognized  Prussia's  favorable  attitude  by 
friendly  approaches."    Muller,  265. 

4.  Revolt  of  Christians  in  Syria,  1860 ;  temporary  occupation  by 
the  French.     Muller,  266. 

5.  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  united  as  Roumania,  1861  ;  a  blow  to 
Turkish  power.     McCarthy,  I,  518.     Muller,  266. 

6.  Revolt  of  Crete,  which  led  to  ill  feeling  between  Turkey  and 
Greece,  1866.  Lodge,  448.  Western  powers  interfere.  McCarthy, 
II,  585.     Muller,  398. 

7.  Continued  revolts,  1870-75.  Lodge,  749,  750.  Virtual  inde- 
pendence of  Egypt;  revolt  in  Servia.     McCarthy,  II,  585,  586. 

8.  Revolt  in  Herzegovina,  1874.  McCarthy,  II,  587,  588.  Muller, 
505-508.  Lodge,  748.  Turkish  system  of  taxation  ;  demands  of  the 
rebels  ;  a,  reform  in  taxation ;  b,  native  instead  of  Turkish  officials ; 


61 


c,  native  militia.     Sympathy  and  support  of  Servia  and  Montenegro. 

Miiller,  511.     McCarthy,  II,  597. 

a.  The  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz,  deposed  by  the  Turkish  war  party. 
His  successor,  Murad  V,  deposed  in  thirteen  months,  for 
idiocy.  Accession  of  Abdul  Hamid  II,  1876.  The  Death 
of  Abdul  Aziz  and  of  Turkish  Reform  ;  Nineteenth  Century, 
vol.  23,  p.  276. 

9.  Bulgarian  atrocities ;  policy  of  Turkey  towards  Bulgaria  one  of 
repression  by  harsh  abuse  and  even  massacre ;  revolt  in  1876  ;  the 
Bashi-Bazouks,  Lodge,  749.  Miiller,  514-517.  McCarthy,  II,  591- 
594.      Gladstone:  Bulgarian  Horrors. 

a.  War  declared  by  Servia  and  Montenegro,  under  Russian 
instigation,  1876 :  interference  by  the  great  powers  unsuc- 
cessful because  they  demanded  rights  of  guardianship  over 
Turkey,  while  Turkey  would  grant  nothing  but  promises  of 
reform. 

10.  Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey,  1877,  as  protector  of 
oppressed  Christians,  and  especially  Slavonic  Christians  in  Turkey. 
1877-78,  Turco-Russian  war.  Lodge,  750.  Miiller,  518-545.  Mc- 
Carthy, II,  600-603. 

11.  Concluded  by  peace  of  San  Stefano,  which  aroused  great  oppo- 
sition from  western  powers  as  too  favorable  to  Russian  interests. 
Miiller,  545-548.     Lodge,  751.     McCarthy,  II,  602-605. 

12.  Congress  of  Berlin,  June,  1878.     Principal  conditions  : 

a.  Montenegro,  Servia,  Roumania,  became  independent,  but 
the  cessions  to  be  made  to  the  two  former  states  were  some- 
what reduced,  while  the  territory  which  Roumania  was  to 
receive  in  exchange  for  Bessarabia  was  somewhat  enlarged. 

b.  The  principality  of  Bulgaria  was  limited  to  the  country 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Balkans,  including,  however, 
Sofia  and  its  territory. 

c.  The  southern  portion  of  Bulgaria,  with  its  boundaries  con- 
siderably narrowed  toward  the  south  and  west,  was  left; 
under  the  immediate  rule  of  the  Sultans,  with  the  title 
Province  of  East  Roumelia,  but  received  a  separate  mili- 
tia, and  administration  under  a  Christian  governor-general ; 
only  in  specified  cases  could  it  be  occupied  by  regular  Turk- 
ish troops. 

d.  The  Russian  troops  were  to  evacuate  E.  Roumelia  and  Bul- 
garia inside  of  nine  months,  Roumania  inside  of  a  year. 


62 


e.  The  Porte  ceded  to  Austria  the  military  occupation  and 
administration  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  as  well  as  the 
military  occupation  of  the  Sandshak  of  Novi  Bazar. 

f.  The  Porte  was  advised  to  cede  a  part  of  Epirus  and  Thes- 
saly  to  Greece. 

g.  Russia  received  in  Asia,  Batoum,  Kars,  Adaghan,  and  some 
border  territories. 

h.  In  Turkey,  and  all  the  states  which  had  been  separated 
from  her,  there  should  be  political  equality  of  all  confessions. 
I.  Turkey  promised  reforms  in  the  Armenian  provinces,  and 
security  of  Armenians  from  attacks  of  robber  Kurds,  h 
and  i  have  not  been  adhered  to.  Armenians  worse  treated 
than  before.  Ploetz,  524.  Lodge,  751.  Muller,  550-552. 
McCarthy,  II,  606-612. 
13.  Cyprus  given  to  England,  1878.    Statesman's  Tear  Book,  534. 

a.  Intervention  of  England  in  Egypt,  1882. 
B.  Montenegro. 

Area,  3630  sq.  mi.,  about  §  the  size  of  Connecticut.     Popul.,  250,- 
000 ;  same  blood  as  the  Servians. 
History  : 

1.  Declaration  of  independence  of  Turkey,  1700.  Establishment 
of  hereditary  hierarchical  government  permitted,  but  not  recognized 
by  Turkey.  Union  of  church  and  state  under  one  head,  called  Vla- 
dika,  1700-1851. 

2.  1851,  the  Vladika  renounces  the  priestly  dignity  and  becomes  a 
temporal  prince  ;  war  with  Turkey. 

a.  Display  of  friendship  for  Russia  in  Crimean  war  rewarded 
by  yearly  payment. 

b.  Accession  of  Nikita,  1861. 

3.  Begins  with  Servia  the  war  against  Turkey  (1876),  which  led  to 
the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78. 

a.  Independence  recognized  by  Congress  of  Berlin,  with  ces- 
sions of  territory,  but  under  restrictions  favorable  to  Aus- 
tria.    Muller,  553,  554. 

b.  The  Dulcigno  demonstration.     Muller,  561-563. 

4.  Relations  with  Russia  ;  hostility  to  Austria  and  to  Albanians. 

5.  Government.     Hereditary  prince  has  absolute  power. 

a.  State  Council,  8  members,  4  elected  by  the  people. 

b.  Inhabitants  divided  into  tribes,  each  under  elected  "  Elders." 

6.  Land  laws,  to  prevent  large  estates.    Laveleye,  281,  282. 


63 

C.    ROUMANIA. 

Reference  :    James  Samuelson  :  Roumania,  Past  and  Present. 

Area,  48,307  sq.  mi.,  about  the  size  of  North  Carolina.  Popul., 
about  5i  ra.  About  4  m.  Roumanians  live  in  countries  bordering 
Roumania.     A  race  of  mixed  origin,  the  Vlach,  or  Wallach. 

History. 

1.  Known  as  '*  Danubian  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
chia."  First  relief  from  Turkish  rule  by  Russo-Turkish  war,  1768- 
74.     Native  rulers,  but  dependent  on  Turkey. 

2.  Greek  insurrection  begins  in  the  principalities,  1821.  Placed 
under  protection  of  Russia.     Treaty  of  Adrianople,  1829. 

3.  Autonomy  under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey  guaranteed  at  end 
of  Crimean  war;  union  of  two  provinces  under  the  name  of  Rouma- 
nia, and  under  one  elected  Hospodar,  or  Prince,  1859-61.  Alexan- 
der Couza. 

4.  Navigation  of  the  Danube.  The  European  Commission,  1856. 
Eugene  Schuyler :  American  Biplomacg,  352—363.  Laveleye:  Balkan 
Peninsula,  366,  367. 

5.  Emancipation  of  peasants  from  serf-labor,  1864.  A  peasant 
proprietary.  The  weight  of  indebtedness,  Jewish  money-lenders. 
Laveleye,  344-346.  J.  D.  Bourchier :  The  Fate  of  Roumania, 
Fortnightly  Review,  Dec,  1888. 

a.  Jewish  question.     Muller,  563,  564.     Laveleye,  361,  362. 

6.  Constitution  (almost  exact  copy  of  that  of  Belgium),  1866, 
modified  1879  and  1884,  and  election  of  Charles  of  Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen,  as  hereditary  prince.     Laveleye,  342,  343. 

7.  Alliance  with  Russia  against  Turkey,  1877.  Important  services 
of  Roumanian  army  at  Plevna  ;  declared  independent,  1877 ;  and  inde- 
pendence guaranteed  by  Congress  of  Berlin,  1878;  loss  of  territory 
east  of  the  Pruth  to  Russia  ;  recognized  as  a  kingdom,  1881. 

8.  Government,  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy. 

a.    Political    parties ;    Conservatives,    pro-Russian ;    National 
Liberals  (Jean  Bratiano),  anti-Russian. 
Triumph  of  Conservatives,  1888.     Russian  intrigues. 
D.  Greece. 

Area,  25,000  sq.  mi. ;  3  times  Massachusetts.  Popul.,  2£  m. ;  about 
h\  m.  more  under  Turkish  rule. 

1.  From  the  16th  century  until  1821-29,  Greece  was  governed  as 
a  province  of  Turkey. 

"  The  forward  movement  of  the  Greek  nation  may  be  said,  in  gen- 
eral terms,  to  have  become  visible  during  the  first  half  of  the  eight- 


64 

eenth  century.  Serfage  had  then  disappeared;  the  peasant  was 
either  a  freeholder  or  a  farmer,  paying  a  rent  in  kind  for  his  land. 
In  the  gradual  and  unobserved  emancipation  of  the  laboring  class, 
the  first  condition  of  national  revival  had  already  been  fulfilled.  The 
peasantry  had  been  formed  which,  when  the  conflict  with  the  Turk 
broke  out,  bore  the  brunt  of  the  long  struggle.  In  comparison  with 
the  Prussian  serf,  the  Greek  cultivator  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  an  independent  man ;  in  comparison  with  the 
English  laborer,  he  was  well  fed  and  well  housed.  The  evils  to 
which  the  Greek  population  was  exposed,  wherever  Greeks  and 
Turks  lived  together,  were  those  which  brutalized  or  degraded  the 
Christian  races  in  every  Ottoman  province.  There  was  no  redress 
for  injury  inflicted  by  a  Mohammedan  official  or  neighbor.  If  a 
wealthy  Turk  murdered  a  Greek  in  the  fields,  burnt  down  his  house, 
and  outraged  his  family,  there  was  no  court  where  the  offender  could 
be  brought  to  justice.  The  term  by  which  the  Turk  described  his 
Christian  neighbor  was  'our  rayah,'  that  is,  'our  subject.'  A 
Mohammedan  landowner  might  terrorize  the  entire  population  around 
him,  carry  off  the  women,  flog  and  imprison  the  men,  and  yet  feel 
that  he  had  committed  no  offence  against  the  law ;  for  no  law  existed 
but  the  Koran,  and  no  Turkish  court  of  justice  but  that  of  the  Kadi, 
where  the  complaint  of  the  Christian  passed  for  nothing."  Fyffe, 
II,  238,  239. 

a.  Phanariotes. 

b.  Klephts.     Sergeant,  258-260. 

c.  Hetseria.     Fyffe,  II,  265-270. 

d.  Ionian  Hands  under  British  Protectorate,  1815-62.     Ser- 
geant, 397,  398. 

2.  The  Greek  Church.     Fyffe,  II,  243,  244 ;  249,  250. 

3.  War  of  Independence,  1821-29.     Lodge,  650-657. 

a.  Unsuccessful  rising  of  Ipsilanti. 

b.  General  revolt.     Fyffe,  II,  273-285. 

c.  Interference  of  the  Great  Powers.     Selfish  diplomacy  of 
Russia  and  England.     Sergeant,  278-280,  350-352. 

d.  Battle  of  Navarino.     Fyffe,  II,  330-334. 

e.  Philohellenism.     Sergeant,  312-320. 

/.   Presidency  of  Capodistrias.     Fyffe,  II,  345-348  ;  disputes 

over  the  new  boundaries ;  civil  war.     Fyffe,  II,  353. 
g.  Crete  given  back  to  Turkey,  by  England's  influenoe. 

4.  Greece  a  kingdom,  1830.     Lodge,  657. 

a.  King  Otho,  1833-63. 


6d 

"  A  frontier  Somewhat  better  than  that  which  had  been  offered  to  Leopold  was  granted 
to  the  new  sovereign,  but  neither  Crete,  Thessaly,  nor  Epirus  was  included  within  his 
kingdom.  Thus  hemmed  in  within  intolerably  narrow  limits,  while  burdened  with  the  ex- 
penses of  an  independent  state,  alike  unable  to  meet  the  calls  upon  its  national  exchequer, 
and  to  exclude  the  intrigues  of  foreign  courts,  Greece  offered  during  the  next  generation 
little  that  justified  the  hopes  that  had  been  raised  as  to  its  future. 

"  Poor  and  inglorious  as  the  Greek  kingdom  was,  it  excited  the  restless  longings  not  only 
of  Greeks  under  Turkish  bondage,  but  of  the  prosperous  Ionian  Islands  under  English  rule; 
and,  in  1864,  the  first  step  in  the  expansion  of  the  Hellenic  kingdom  was  accomplished  by 
the  transfer  of  these  islands  from  Great  Britain  to  Greece.  Our  own  day  has  seen  Greece 
further  strengthened  and  enriched  by  the  annexation  of  Thessaly.  The  commercial  and 
educational  development  of  the  kingdom  is  now  as  vigorous  as  that  of  any  state  in  Europe; 
in  agriculture  and  in  manufacturing  industry  it  still  lingers  far  behind."     Fyffe,  354,  355. 

b.  Representative  constitution,  1843. 

c.  Agitation  for  extending  the  northern  boundary. 

"  Greece  was  very  much  dissatisfied  with  the  Peace  of  Paris,  which  guaranteed  the  Turk- 
ish boundaries.  Henceforward  King  Otho  had  a  difficult  position.  The  nation  could  not 
forgive  him  for  having  shown  no  enterprise  or  military  ambition  during  the  Crimean  war; 
and  from  that  time  on  he  was  regarded  as  wholly  unfit  to  carry  out  the  '  great  idea'  of  a 
great  Greece  and  transfer  his  residence  to  Constantinople. 

"The  Hellenes  asked  themselves  whether  that  which  the  Italians  had  striven  after  with 
almost  complete  success  was  to  be  forbidden  them  ;  whether  they  did  not  have  the  same 
right  to  give  ear  to  their  Grecian  brothers  who  were  sighing  under  the  yoke  of  a  barbarian 
people,  and  unite  into  one  state  all  the  Grecian  provinces  of  the  Olympian  peninsula." 
Midler,  266. 

5.  Revolution  and  expulsion  of  Otho,  1862.  George  of  Denmark 
chosen  King,  1863.     Cession  of  Ionian  Hands  by  England.     Sergeant, 

397,  398. 

a.  Insurrection  of  Crete  in  favor  of  union  with  Greece, 
1866-68;  Greater  Greece;  interference  of  the  Powers; 
England,  chiefly  through  fear  of  Russia,  aids  Turkey  to 
retain  Crete. 

6.  Position  and  claims  of  Greece  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877. 
Restraint  by  England  ;  unfulfilled  promises  of  England.  Sergeant, 
402-413.     Miiller,  554. 

a.  Greece,  by  threat  of  war,  obtains  Thessaly,  1881. 

7.  Government,  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  Single  cham- 
ber. Election  of  members  of  the  House  by  Scrutin  de  liste.  Ser- 
geant, ch.  iv. 

a.  Political  parties  and  tendencies.  Tricoupis  and  party  of 
peace  and  domestic  reforms.  The  desire  for  expansion, 
and  a  vigorous  foreign  policy. 

b.  Brigandage  suppressed.     Sergeant,  116-126. 

c.  Greek  influence  in  commerce.     Sergeant,  ch.  vii. 
E.  Servia. 

Area,  18,750  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  nearly  2  m. 
History. 

1.  Subject  to  Turks,  1389-1806.     Gains   some   powers   of  local 


66 

government,  with  aid  of  Russia,  1807-11.  Successful  resistance  to 
Turkey,  1815-29,  under  Alexander  Milos  Obrenovitch,  whom  Tur- 
key recognizes  as  hereditary  prince.     Annual  tribute  to  be  paid. 

2.  Russian  intrigues  to  prevent  growth  of  national  Servian  feel- 
ing.    Civil  wars,  1839-60. 

3.  Agitation  for  complete  independence,  1860-68.  Withdrawal  of 
Turkish  garrisons,  1867.  Accession  of  Milan,  1868.  Liberal  con- 
stitution, 1869.  Free  press  and  a  re-organized  army.  Opposition  of 
Russia. 

4.  Servians  and  Montenegrins,  acting  under  Russian  influence, 
begin  war  against  Turkey,  1877.  Independence  of  Servia  confirmed 
by  treaty  of  Berlin,  1878.     Proclaimed  a  kingdom  (Milan  I),  1882. 

5.  Unsuccessful  war  against  Bulgaria,  1885,  caused  by  Russian 
intrigues  and  by  envy  of  Bulgaria's  advancement.  Servia  saved  by 
Austria. 

6.  Government,  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy. 

a.  Senate,  or  Council  of  State. 

b.  The  Skuptschina  (Parliament),  one  chamber. 

c.  The  Great  Skuptschina. 

d.  Communal  institutions.     Statesman's  Year  Booh,  1888,454. 
Laveleye,  182-189. 

7.  Political  parties  and  tendencies. 

a.  Conservatives,  pro-Russian,  Ristics. 

b.  Progressist,  pro-Austrian,  Garashanine. 

c.  Radicals,  supposed  to  be  pro-Russian.      Laveleye,  194-198. 

d.  New    Constitution.       Radical    triumph,    1888.        London 
(Weekly)  Times,  Jan.  4,  1889,  p.  16. 

F.  Bulgaria  (including  Eastern  Roumelia). 
Area,  37,860  sq.  mi.;  popul.,  about  3  m. 
History. 
1.  Under  Turkish  dominion,  1392-1878. 

"  The  Bulgarians,  of  Turanian  race,  came  across  the  Danube  from  the  banks  of  the  Volga 
in  the  fifth  century.    They  settled  in  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula  and  intermingled 

with  the  Slavs,  whose  language  and  customs  they  adopted During  the  ninth 

and  tenth  centuries,  the  Bulgarians  struggled  victoriously  with  the  Magyars  in  the  North, 

and  the  Greeks  in  the  j^outh.    They  were  then  at  the  height  of  their  power 

For  two  centuries,  1018  to  1196,  Bulgaria  was  only  a  Byzantine  province,  but  Kaloyan  re- 
stored the  Bulgarian  Empire  and  decided  the  defeat,  near  Adrianople,  of  the  army  of  the 
Crusaders  commanded  by  Baldwin.  Joanice-Asen  II  (1218-1*241),  reigned  over  almost  the 
whole  peninsula,  compelled  the  Patriarch  to  recognize  the  autonomy  of  the  Greek  Bulgar- 
ian Church,  and  besieged  Constantinople,  which  was  saved  by  the  Italians  in  1236. 

"  The  Tatars  arrived  soon  afterwards  and  ravaged  the  whole  country  horribly;  then  came 
the  Turks,  who  crossed  the  Bosphorus  and  invaded  the  peninsula.  If  Greeks,  Bulgarians, 
and  Servians  could  have  united,  they  might,  perhaps,  have  driven  them  back  into  Asia  ; 
but  they  continued  to  make  war  wjth  each  other  to  the  end, 


67 


"  The  Servians,  under  their  great  Emperor,  Dushan,  joined  with  the  Bulgarians,  threat- 
ened Constantinople  and  seemed  on  the  eve  of  constituting  a  powerful  state,  1356  ;  but  for 
want  of  an  administrative  organization,  nothing  lasting  could  he  established.  The  Servians 
were  defeated  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Kossovo  in  1389,  and  Tirnova,  the  Bulgarian  capital, 
was  taken  by  Tchelebi,  son  of  Bajazet,  in  1393.  The  Turkish  domination  began,  and  the 
Bulgarian  church,  losing  its  autonomy,  fell  again  under  the  authority  of  the  Greek  patriarch. 
The  Bulgarian  nationality  had  apparently  ceased  to  exist."  Laveleye :  The  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, 245,  246. 

2.  Subjection  of  Bulgarian  Christians  to  Greek  Church.  Acquisi- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  autonomy,  1869-70.     Laveleye,  249-252. 

3.  Insurrection  against  Turkey,  1876.  Cruelty  of  Turks.  See  A, 
§  9,  ante.  How  the  promises  of  Turkish  Government  to  Christian 
nations  were  performed.     (See  A,  1,  d,  and  A,  3,  b,  ante.) 

"  The  hatti-sheriff  of  Gulhani,  sent  by  the  Porte  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  Christian 
Powers,  far  from  affording  any  relief  to  the  rayas,  only  made  their  fate  more  terrible. 
*  The  only  change  which  resulted,'  said  Blanqui,  '  merely  concerned  the  finances,  and  was 

directed  with  the  greatest  harshness  against  the  Christians The  various  taxes 

imposed  on  the  rayas  were  added  together,  and  represented  by  a  sum  which  included  them 
all,  but  did  not  increase  them;  but  the  unfortunate  Christians,  however,  instead  of  paying 
once,  were  compelled  to  pay  them  two  or  three  times.  The  collectors  pretended  that  they 
had  not  received  the  taxes  which  the  people  asserted  they  had  really  paid.  As  they,  for 
the  most  part,  could  neither  read  nor  write,  they  were  deceived  with  receipts  which  gave 
smaller  sums  or  fixed  earlier  dates.  Most  frequently  they  had  no  written  receipts,  but 
notches  were  cut  in  little  bits  of  wood,  always  lost  or  out  of  the  way  when  they  might  be 
useful  to  a  rate-payer  ;  always  at  hand  when  they  bore  witness  against  him.  After  all,  it 
was  still  the  old  system  of  extortion  and  violence,  with  hypocrisy  added,  and  a  deceptive 
appearance  of  legality.    That  is  what  the  Turkish  mind  had  made  of  the  hatti-sheriff,  an 

atrocious  deception Now.  in  Turkey,  those  who  are  behindhand  with  their 

taxes  have  soldiers  sent  to  live  in  their  homes.  These  soldiers  install  themselves  in  the  rate- 
payer's house  day  and  night,  rummage  everywhere,  use  everything  as  if  it  was  their  personal 

property,  and  leave  the  inhabitants  no  peace Europe  does  not  sufficiently 

understand  that  at  the  present  time  there  is  not  a  single  Christian  woman  whose  honor  is 
not  at  the  mercy  of  the  first  Mussulman  whom  she  has  the  misfortune  to  please  !  Europe 
does  not  know  that  the  Turks  enter  a  Christian's  house  whenever  they  like  and  take  what- 
ever pleases  them  ;  that  a  complaint  is  more  dangerous  than  resistance  ;  and  that  the 
simplest  quarters  given  to  the  lowest  men  in  the  most  benighted  countries  would  be 
immense  favors  to  the  inhabitants  of  Bulgaria."    Laveleye,  294-296. 

4.  Great  Bulgaria  of  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano.     Muller,  546. 

5.  Congress  of  Berlin  (1878)  recognizes  Bulgaria  as  self-governing 
**  principality  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan."  Annual  tribute 
(on  paper).      People  to  ordain  Constitution  and  elect  a  Prince. 

a.  No  Prince  of  European  reigning  house  eligible. 

b.  East  Roumelia,  with  an  autonomous  administration  and  a 
Christian  Governor-General,  left  under  the  control  of  the 
Sultan.     Muller,  551,  552. 

6.  1879,  Constituent  Assembly  of  Bulgaria,  under  Russian  auspices. 

a.  Liberal  constitution.  Single  legislative  chamber,  the  So- 
branje. 

b.  Alexander  of  Battenberg  chosen  Prince.     Laveleye,  253. 


68 


c.  Separate  organization  of  East  Roumelia  by  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment, under  foreign  pressure.     Mutter,  557,  558. 

d.  Radical  or  anti-Russian  sentiment  in  the  Sobranje.  Rus- 
sian intrigues  to  keep  Bulgaria  weak.  Tyranny  of  Russian 
envoys.  Laveleye,  255,  256.  Contemp.  Rev.,  Nov.,  1886, 
pp.  609-615.  Suspension  of  the  Constitution,  1881-83. 
Laveleye,  254. 

e.  Prince  Alexander  and  the  National  Bulgarian  party.  Hos- 
tility of  Russia.      Contemp.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1886,  pp.  501-508. 

7.  Revolution  in  East  Roumelia,  Sept.  17,  1885.  Union  with 
Bulgaria  under  Alexander  proclaimed. 

8.  Defensive  and  successful  war  against  Servia,  1885.  Russian 
intrigues. 

9.  Aug.  20,  1886,  Russian  Plot.  Prince  Alexander  abducted. 
His  return  and  resignation,  Sept.  7.  Contemp.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1886,  pp. 
583-591. 

a.  Provisional  Regency. 

b.  Conference  of  Ambassadors  at  Constantinople,  1887. 

c.  Russian  candidate,  Nicholas  of  Mingrelia. 

d.  Sobranje  elects  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg,  July  7,  1887, 
who  accepts.     Fortnightly  Rev.,  July,  1888,  pp.  39-56. 

e.  Attitude  of  the  Powers  towards  Bulgaria. 

10.  Government.  Form  of  a  constitutional  monarchy.  Princely 
title  hereditary.  Responsible  ministry.  National  Assembly  (Sobranje) 
"  elected  by  universal  manhood  suffrage  at  the  rating  of  one  member 
to  every  10,000  of  the  population,  '  counting  both  sexes.'  "  States- 
man's Tear  Book,  539. 

11.  Political  Parties. 

a.  Governmental,  anti-Russian,  Stambouloff. 

b.  Opposition,  pro-Russian,  ZankofL 

c.  Strength  of  Nationality.  Fortnightly  Rev.,  July,  1888, 
pp.  53-56. 

d.  Influence  of  Robert  College. 

12.  Railway  Connections.  Baron  HirscKs  Railway,  Fortnightly 
Rev.,  Aug.,  1888,  pp.  229-239. 


69 


LECTURE  XIV. 


THE  PRESENT  EMPIRE  OF  THE  OTTOMAN  TURKS.     THE 
EASTERN  QUESTION. 

Additional    References:    J.  M.  Bugbee:   The   Eastern  Question 
Historically  Considered.    Fortnightly  Rev.,  vol.  40  (1886),  563- 
547.     Sir  R.  Roberts :  Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus.      W.  G. 
Palgrave :    Central  and  Eastern  Arabia. 
1.  Government  and  Administration. 

Area  (including  nominally  dependent  States  of  Bulgaria,  Bosnia, 
and  Herzegovina),  in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  \\  sq.  mi. ;  popul., 
over  33  m. 

a.  Fundamental  laws  based  on  the  Koran,  the  Multeka,  sup- 
posed sayings  of  Mohammed  and  his  immediate  successors, 
and  the  "  Canon  Nameh,"  edicts  of  the  Sultang. 

b.  Authority;  Sultan's  will  absolute;  Head  of  State  and 
Church  alike ;  in  latter  capacity  claims  to  be  the  Caliph 
(l.  e.,  successor  of  Mahomet)  of  the  Mohammedan  world ; 
dignity  acquired  from  last  Egyptian  Caliph,  1517.  Succes- 
sion usually  to  the  oldest  male  relative  of  the  last  Sultan. 
The  Harem,  a  State  institution.  5,000  individuals  constitute 
Court  and  Harem,  absorbing  all  revenues  of  the  State. 

c.  Grand  Vizier  appointed  by  Sultan  at  head  of  administration, 
President  of  Divan,  or  Imperial  Council  of  Ministers. 

d.  Country  divided  into  vilayets  (vali,  or  Governor-General, 
with  Council),  provinces,  districts,  and  municipalities.  En- 
tire civil  service  dependent  on  central  power.  "  Birth  con- 
fers no  privilege,  as  all  true  believers  are  equal  in  the  eye 
of  the  law."     Statesman's  Tear  Book,  524. 

e.  Sheik-ul-Islam  (Elder  of  Islam),  appointed  by  Sultan,  at 
head  of  religious  administration ;  chief  of  the  Ulemas, 
interpreters  of  law  and  Koran.  Religious  administration 
includes  : 


70 


(1)  Ulemas  proper,  chief  religious  and  legal  functionaries. 

(2)  Mollahs  and  Kadis  (judges  and  magistrates). 

(3)  Muftis,  theologians  and  expounders  of  the  Koran. 

(4)  Imams,  ministers  of  worship. 

(5)  Sottas,  theological  students. 

(6)  Hadjis  and  Dervishes. 

2.  Religion  and  education.  Under  actual  Turkish  rule,  in  Europe 
and  Asia  together,  Mohammedans,  16  m. ;  Christians,  over  5  m. 
Annual  pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  120,610  in  1883.  Education  in  con- 
trol of  Muftis.  Foreign  Missions  and  Schools.  Robert  College. 
American  Missionary  schools. 

3.  Finance  and  taxation.  Country  bankrupt  since  1875.  Excise 
taxes  in  hands  of  a  commission  of  creditors  since  1881  ;  other  reve- 
nues mortgaged.  National  debt,  permanent  deficit.  English  loans. 
Vakoufs,  church  lands.     Laveleye,  317-321.     Different  forms  of  land 

tenure.     Statesman's  Tear  Book,  534,  535. 

4.  Local  government  under  Turkish  Empire. 

a.  Egypt.  Khedivate  hereditary  in  family  of  Mehemet  AH 
since  1841,  on  condition  of  annual  tribute.  Tevvfik  Pasha, 
Khedive,  1879.  Rebellion  of  Arabi  Pasha,  1882,  to  drive 
out  foreigners,  and  establish  National  Assembly. 

Withdrawal  of  France.  England  occupies  the  country. 
Constitution  of  1883.  Mixed  courts.  Government  Tear 
Book,  1888,  pp.  588-592.  The  Mahdi  and  Gordon  in  the 
Soudan,  1883-84.  Abolition  of  forced  peasant  labor,  1887. 
Our  Task  in  Egypt;  Fortnightly  Review,  Nov.,  1888,  p. 
629.  Egypt  and  the  English  Occupation  ;  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  tome  90,  pp.  654,  890. 

b.  Samos.  Limited  local  control  since  1832.  Prince  (a 
Greek)  appointed  by  Sultan,  and  Council  of  four  Greeks. 

c.  Christians  of  Mt.  Lebanon,  in  Syria,  under  a  Governor  of 
their  own  faith  since  1864. 

d>  Crete  has  a  National  Assembly  in  which  both  Christians 
and  Mohammedans  are  represented. 
A.  The  Eastern  Question. 
The  disposal  of  the  territories  of  the  important  Mohammedan  states. 
1.     The  question  of  Turkey  in  Europe. 

a.  The  Race  Question.     Macedonia.     Laveleye,  ch.  x. 
k  Claims    of   Greece.     Fortnightly  Review,   vol.   40  (1886), 
pp.  404-413. 


71 


c.  Aspirations  of  Russia. 

d.  Interests  of  Austro-Hungary. 

e.  Ecclesiastical  influences. 

f.  A  Balkan  Confederation.     Laveleye,  330-335. 
g.  The  interests  of  England. 

2.  The  Asiatic  question. 

a.  Russia's  advance  upon  Asia  Minor.  (See  Lecture  VII,  B.) 
Objective  points,  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Bosphorus.  Fate 
of  Persia.  The  advance  through  Circassia,  1799-1878. 
The  advance  through  Turkestan,  or  Central  Asia,  1846, 
1860-84  (Merv  and  Bokhara)  -1887  (Afghan  frontier). 

b.  Claims  of  Greeks  and  Armenians.     Laveleye,  321-323. 

c.  The  mountaineers  of  Asia  Minor. 

d.  The  English  in  Cyprus.  Miiller,  552.  Hazell,  1888.  Fort- 
nightly Review,  vol.  40,  1886,  pp.  372-387. 

e.  Interests  of  European  governments  (France,  Russia)  in 
Palestine.  Fortnightly  Review,  1882,  p.  427;  1883,  p.  227. 

f.  Independent  Arabia.  Beni  Shammar,  Nejd,  Oman.  Pal- 
grave,  ch.  viii.  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  33,  1880,  p.  141 ; 
Feb.,  1884,  p.  191. 

g.  Religious  sympathies  of  Arabs.  The  Shereef  of  Mecca. 
Stanford 's  Compendium.     Keane :  Asia,  135,  136. 

h.  The  English  at  Aden;  occupied  in  1838.    Keane,  138-140. 
i.  Trade  routes.     Keane,  140-142. 

3.  The  Turkish  question  in  Africa. 

a.  Algiers  nominally  subject,  1516  ;  conquered  by  France, 
1830. 

b.  Egypt  virtually  independent  of  Turkey  since  1841  ;  politi- 
cal importance  of  Suez  canal ;  the  Red  Sea  route. 

c.  Tunis,  nominally  subject,  1531 ;  conquered  by  France,  1881  — 
82.     Kairwan. 

d.  Tripoli,  and  the  hopes  of  Italy. 

e.  Feeling  of  Arabs  and  African  Mohammedans  towards  the 
Ottoman  Turk.  Soudanese  sects  and  fraternities.  Doctrine 
of  a  Mahdi. 

/.  Mohammedan  Missions  in  Africa.  E.  W.  Blyden:  Chris- 
tianity, Islam,  and  the  Negro  Race  (2d  ed.),  199,  277,  350. 
Canon  Taylor:  The  Great  Missionary  Failure,  Fortnightly 
Review,  Oct.,  1888. 

g.  Arabians  and  the  slave  trade  in  the  Soudan.  The  English 
at  Suakim.     (Lecture  XXIV.) 


72 


4.  The  future  of  Islam  and  the  Caliphate.  Fortnightly  Review, 
vol.  36,  1881,  pp.  204,  315,  441,  585 ;  vol.  37,  1882,  p.  32.  See  also 
Blyden. 


LECTURE  XV, 


U EIOI  \\  CONFEDERATIONS  AND  THE  GROWTH  OF  PRUSSIA. 

References  :  S.  Baring- Gould :   Germany,    Present    and    Past. 
S.  Baring -Gould :    Germany.     James  Sime  :  History  of  Ger- 
many   {Freeman's   Historical  Course).       Moritz  Busch ;   Our 
Chancellor.     J.  R.  Seeley :  Life  and  Times  of  Stein  (Tauch- 
uitz  ed.).     M.  Grant  Duff ':  Studies  in  European  Politics,  chs. 
iv,  v.     Sidney  Whitman :  Imperial  Germany. 
In  1806,  the  German  empire  came  to  an  end ;  Francis  II,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  forced  by  Napoleon,  resigned  and  retired  to  govern  his 
own  inheritance,  Austria,  under  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria.  New 
confederation  formed.    Lodge,  592.    Sime:  History  of  Germany,  202. 

I.  1806-15,  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  composed  of  16  states 
which  were  induced  to  unite  by  Napoleon  under  promise  of  cessions 
of  conquered  territory  from  the  rest  of  Germany.  Lodge,  592-595. 
The  mediatized  Princes.     Fyffe,  I,  295. 

II.  1815-66.  The  Germanic  Confederation,  39  states,  under  the 
hegemony  of  Austria.  See  Notes  on  Austro- Hungary,  Lodge,  637, 
669,  687.  Muller,  7-9.  Sime:  Germany,  209.  Gould:  Germany, 
p.  166.     Stipulations  of  the  Federal  Act.      Grant  Duff,  258,  259. 

1.  Influence  of  French  Revolutionary  Epoch  upon  Prussia,  espe- 
cially after  the  defeat  by  Napoleon,  1806-7. 

a.  The  Ministers,  Stein,  and  Hardenberg.  McCarthy,  II,  348. 

b.  Reforms  introduced  about  1810.  Lodge,  605-608.     Former 
social  system.  Fyffe,  I,  33,  34. 

(1)  Abolition  of  serfdom  and  prerogatives  of  feudal  nobility. 
Lodge.     Seeley,  II,  18-31. 


73 


(2)  Abolition  of  trade  guilds. 

(3)  Abolition  of  all  restrictions  to  the  right  of  property  in 
land. 

(4)  More  equal  distribution  of  taxes. 

(5)  Compulsory  education.     McCarthy,  II,  481. 

(6)  Introduction  of  the  Landwehr  system. 

2.  Increase  of  Prussian  territory  at  Congress  of  Vienna,  1815. 
Ploetz,  482,  483.  Character  of  King  Frederic  William  III,  1797- 
1840.  Mutter,  10.  Relative  positions  of  Austria  and  Prussia;  ques- 
tion of  Alsace-Lorraine.     Fyffe,  II,  60-74. 

a.  The  Burschenschaft,  or  student  fraternity  ;  murder  of  Kot- 
zebue  aud  its  suppression.  Lodge,  638.  Mutter,  13-17. 
Fyffe,  II,  127-129,  139-142. 

b.  In  1815,  the  King  promised  the  people  a  constitution; 
opposition  of  Metternich  and  reactionary  party,  so  that  it 
was  never  fulfilled.  Lodge,  630-637.  Mutter,  3-5,  9.  Fyffe, 
II,  121-125.     Sime,  224. 

c.  Period  of  depression. 

d.  The  Zollverein,  1828-36.  Industrial  and  commercial  union 
of  Central  and  South  German  States,  under  leadership  and 
protection  of  Prussia.  Mutter,  164,  165  ;  318,  319.  Fyffe, 
II,  406. 

"  The  idea  of  a  uniform  system  of  customs  for  the  German  States,  first  suggested  at  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  was  acted  upon  by  the  government  of  Prussia,  which  abol- 
ished all  distinctions  of  customs  throughout  its  territories,  May  26,  1818,  and  invited 
other  governments  to  unite  for  a  similar  purpose.  The  invitation  was  generally  accepted, 
and  the  result  was  the  formation  of  the  Zollverein,  by  which  internal  trade  was  free  from 
all  restrictions,  and  a  uniform  system  of  duties  agreed  on  for  those  states  that  joined  it." 
Ewald,  84. 

3.  1837,  dissolution  of  union  between  England  and  Hanover, 
(1714-1837)  ;  accession  of  reactionary  King  Ernest;  relations  with 
Prussia  and  South  German  States.     Mutter,  162,  163. 

4.  Frederic  William  IV,  1840-57,  imbecile;  1857,  gave  way  to  a 
Regency;  died,  1861.  Character.  Grant  Duff,  202-20 6.  Hopes  of 
reform  ;  disappointment.  Lodge,  688.  Mutter,  165-168.  Fyffe,II, 
496-498. 

a.  "  Royal  Patent  "  of  1847. 

(1)   Landtag  or  Central  Diet  assembled  at  Berlin.     Lodge, 
688-690.     Miiller,  168.     Fyffe,  II,  498,  502.    Sime,  233. 

"  Prussia  herself  had  no  parliament  of  the  whole  monarchy  until  1847  ;  up  to  that  year 
there  had  been  only  local  '  Landes  Stande,'  estates  or  diets  for  the  several  provinces.  The 
liberal  party  had  two  objects  to  struggle  for,—  the  establishment  or  extension  of  free  insti- 
tutions in  the  several  states,  and  the  attainment  of  national  unity.    .    .    .     Now,  in  Ger- 


74 

many,  such  liberties  had  not  been  known  since  primitive  times  ;  and  there  were  few  seri- 
ous practical  grievances  to  be  complained  of.  From  the  time  of  Frederick  the  Great  the 
country  had  been  well  and  honestly  administered  ;  conscience  was  free,  trade  and  indus- 
try were  growing,  taxation  was  not  heavy,  the  press' censorship  did  not  annoy  the  ordinai-y 
citizen,  and  the  other  restraints  upon  personal  freedom  were  only  those  to  which  the  sub- 
jects of  all  the  Continental  monarchies  had  been  accustomed.  The  habit  of  submission 
was  strong ;  and  there  existed  in  most  places  a  good  deal  of  loyalty,  irrational  perhaps, 
but  not  therefore  the  less  powerful,  towards  the  long-descended  reigning  houses.  It  was 
therefore  hard  for  the  liberals  to  excite  their  countrymen  to  any  energetic  and  concerted 
action  ;  and  when  the  governments  thought  fit  to  repress  their  attempts  at  agitation,  this 
could  be  harshly  done  with  little  fear  of  the  consequences. 

"  It  was  therefore  only  through  the  carefully-guarded  press,  and  occasionally  in  social  or 
literary  gatherings,  that  appeals  to  the  nation  could  be  made,  or  the  semblance  of  an  agi- 
tation kept  up.  There  was  no  point  to  start  from  ;  and  it  was  all  aspiration  and  nothing 
more  ;  and  so  this  movement,  to  which  so  many  of  the  noblest  hearts  and  intellects  of  Ger- 
many devoted  themselves  (though  the  two  greatest  stood  aloof),  made  during  many  years 
little  apparent  progress."    James  Bryce :  Holy  Koman  Empire,  415-417. 

b.  Development  of  political  parties. 

(1)  Liberals;    free  institutions;    peaceful   foreign    policy. 
"  Prussia  Germanized,  and  not  Germany  Prussianized." 

(2)  Conservative  ;  extreme  wing  known  as  "  Old  Prussian 
Party  ";  warlike  and  ambitious. 

(3)  Junkers.      Muller,  306.       Grant  Duff,  214-216,  243- 
245. 

c.  Bismarck.  Lodge,  708,  727-730,  737,  751.  Muller,  306- 
332,  445-448,  460,  466,  550,  568,  632-639,  645-651.  Mc- 
Carthy, II,  246,  504,  508,  509,  606.  Sime,  245.  For  a 
sketch  of  Bismarck  in  his  private  life, — Busch:  Our  Chan- 
cellor, II,  ch.  7.      Grant  Duff,  233-235. 

"  Distinguished  for  the  acuteness  of  his  political  diagnosis,  of  unbending  will,  an  ardent 
enthusiast  for  Prussian  and  German  greatness,  at  the  age  of  forty-seven  he  already  had  a 
checkered  career  behind  him.  In  the  United  Landtag  of  1847,  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
extreme  right,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  determined  opposition  to  a  national  assem- 
bly and  a  constitution.  He  accepted  for  his  party  the  nickname  '  Junker,'  and  replied  to  his 
opponents  :  '  Be  assured  that  we  for  our  part  will  bring  the  name  of  Junker  to  respect  and 
honor.'  As  delegate  to  the  Diet  of  Frankfurt,  in  1851,  he  had  an  opportunity  to  observe 
Austria's  influence  over  the  second-rate  and  lesser  German  states,  and  to  appreciate  thor- 
oughly Prussia's  false  position.  Hitherto,  in  Junker  fashion,  he  had  overflowed  with  praise 
of  Austria,  but  now  '  there  fell  from  his  eyes  as  it  had  been  scales,'  as  he  himself  said,  and 
from  that  time  he  stood  forward  as  her  open  and  secret  adversary.  That  he  might  not  be 
compromised  by  Bismarck's  sympathy  for  the  cause  of  Italy,  the  King  transferred  him  to 
St.  Petersburg,  as  ambassador,  in  1859.  In  1862  he  became  ambassador  at  Paris,  and  had  a 
chance  to  study  his  future  rival,  Napoleon.  His  words  in  the  Budget  committee  attracted 
universal  attention  :  '  Prussia  must  collect  its  strength  for  the  favorable  moment,  which 
has  already  been  several  times  allowed  to  pass.  Prussia's  borders  are  not  adapted  to  sound 
health  in  the  political  body.  It  is  not  by  speeches  and  resolutions  of  majorities  that  the 
great  questions  of  the  times  are  to  be  decided,  —  that  was  the  mistake  of  1840  and  1845,— 
but  by  blood  and  iron."     Midler,  306,  307. 

d.  Prussia  joins  in  European  Revolution  of  1848.  Overthrow 
of  the  Metternich  system.  Frederic  William  IV  goes  with 
the  tide.  "  Henceforward  Prussia  takes  the  lead  in  Ger- 
many,"    Muller,  226-228, 


75 

e.  Constitution  of  1849-50.     "  By  this  step  Prussia  entered 
the  ranks  of  modern  constitutional  States."     Mutter,  228- 
230. 
f  Desire  of  Diet  of  Germanic  Confederation  (28  States)  to 
revive  German  Empire  under  Prussian  King.     Fierce  oppo- 
sition   of   Austria   and    South    German    States.      Frederic 
William    IV    refuses    imperial    crown,    1849  ;    desires    no 
'*  crown  that  will  horribly  pollute  the  bearer  with  carrion 
smell  of  revolution  of  1848."     Mutter,  230-232. 
g.  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  the  desire  of  the  German  Liberals 
for  national  unity.     Prussia  outwitted  and  brow-beaten   by 
Austria,    Russia,    and    England.       Mutter,  213,  218,   219, 
245-253. 
5.  William    I,  Regent,    1857-61  ;    King,    1861-88  ;    Emperor   of 
Germany,   1871-88.      Accession.      Mutter,  273.      Military  reforms. 
Milller,  304,  305.     Promotion  of  Otto  Von  Bismarck-Schoenhausen  ; 
definite  and  vigorous  policy.     Grant  Duff,  233,  234.     Whitman,  116- 
125.     Sime,  245. 

a.  Prussia's  commanding  attitude  in  Germany  in  1859. 
Sime,  244.     Mutter,  283-286. 

b.  Austria  repelled  in  attempts  to  enter  and  control  the  Zoll- 
verein,  1853, 1864.  Mutter,  272,  318,  319.    Busch,  291-293. 

c.  Revival  of  Liberal- Democratic  party  of  1848  in  Prussia  and 
Germany  (Fortschritts  Partei),  1859-62.  Grant  Buff,  228- 
233. 

d.  Lassalle  and  the  Social- Democratic  party.  Baring- Gould, 
History  of  Germany,  410-414,  430-437.  Laveleye:  Social- 
ism of  Today,  ch.  v. 

e.  Constitutional  conflict  between  the  Ministry  (Bismarck)  and 
the  Lower  House  of  the  Prussian  Landtag,  1862-66.  Miil- 
ler,  307. 

/.  The  Schleswig-Holstein  difficulty,  1863-65.  Sime,  246- 
249.  Mutter,  309-325.  Prussia  and  Austria  drive  the 
Danes  from  the  Duchies,  1864. 

g.  Difficulty  results  in  Prusso-Austrian  War  of  1866.     Causes  : 

(1)  Rivalry  for  possession  of  duchies  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 

(2)  Ambition   of  each  state  to  be  supreme    in    Germany. 
Austria  to  keep  the  supremacy,  Prussia  to  win  it. 

(3)  Success  of  Prussia  with  the  Zollverein. 

(4)  Opposition  of  two  systems  of  Government.     Prussia, 
more  Liberal ;  Austria,  the  Metternich  system.     South 


76 


German  States,  together  with  Hanover,  Saxony,  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  Nassau,  side  with  Austria  ;    the  remainder 
with  Prussia  ;    Italy  also  the  ally  of   Prussia.     Sadowa 
(Koeniggratz),  July  3,  1866  ;  destruction  of  the  Austrian 
power.     MiMer,  326-366. 
h.  Peace  of  Prague,  Aug.  23,  1866.     Austria  excluded  from 
Germany.       End    of    Germanic    Confederation    declared, 
Aug.  24,  1866.     South  German  States  recognize  hegemony 
of  Prussia.     Sime,  255.    Baring- Gould,  167. 
i.  Annexation    to    Russia    of    Schleswig-Holstein,    Hanover, 
Hesse-Cassel,   Nassau,    and    Frankfurt.      Lodge,  726-730. 
Muller,  367.     McCarthy,  II,  244-247.     Sime,  255. 
III.  1866-71,  North  German  Confederation.      Lodge,  730,  731. 
Muller,  368.     22  states  in  this   alliance  ;  Bavaria,  Baden, 
and  Wiirtemberg,  states  south  of  the  Main,  were  excluded, 
but  were  bound  by  secret  treaties  to  Prussia,  and  in  1867 
joined  the  Zollverein. 

1.  The  constitution  of  the  Confederation. 

a.  Military  forces  were  consolidated  under  the  leadership  of 
Prussia. 

b.  King  of  Prussia  as  President  of  the  Confederation  was 
vested  with  the  control  of  foreign  affairs,  and  also  with  the 
right  of  declaring  war  and  peace  with  the  consent  of  the 
federal  Parliament. 

c.  All  legislation  for  revenue  for  federal  objects  transferred  to 
the  control  of  the  Parliament. 

d.  Parliament  consisted  of  — 

(1)  Bundesrath  or  council  of  43  members,  of  which  Prussia 
was  entitled  to  17;  this  represented  the  government. 
Muller,  379,  383. 

(2)  Reichstag,  or  popular  branch,  elected  by  manhood  suf- 
frage.    Muller,  378-383,  368,  381. 

2.  The  Luxemburg  Question,  1867.     Muller,  370,  371. 

3.  Strength  of  desire  for  German  unity  among  the  South  German 
States,  1866-70.  Particularism  in  Ultramontane  Bavaria  and  Hesse, 
and  in  democratic  Wiirtemberg.  National  feeling  in  Baden.  Muller, 
376-388. 

4.  War  of  Prussia  with  France,  1870.  Uprising  of  the  South  Ger- 
mans ;  demand  for  German  unity.  Mc  Carthy,  II,  503-505.  Lodge, 
734-737.     Muller,  409-460.     Sime,  256-264. 


77 


5.  The  Culturkarapf,  1871.      Its  beginnings.       Mutter,  165,  166, 
272.     The  May  Laws,  1873-74. 

a.  Church  officers  cannot  inflict  social  or  civil  penalties. 

b.  Priests  must  have  a  secular  as  well  as  clerical  education. 

c.  Performance  of  ecclesiastical  duties  must  be  authorized  by 
the  State. 

d.  1874,  compulsory  civil  marriage  and  registration  laws. 
MiXller,  499-503,  631-636.     Gould,  ch.  x. 

6.  Government,  hereditary  monarchy  ;  since  1850,  constitutional. 

a.  Ministry  appointed  by  King. 

b.  Legislature,  the  Landtag,  two  chambers.  Herrenhaus, 
composed  of  — 

(1)  Hohenzollern  princes. 

(2)  Heads  of  16  princely  houses  (mediatized). 

(3)  Heads  of  territorial  nobility  (about  50). 

(4)  Life-peers. 

(5)  8  Noblemen  elected  in  the  8  provinces  to  represent 
land-owners. 

(6)  Representatives  of  universities ;  burgomasters  of  large 
cities. 

(7)  Unlimited  number  of  members  nominated  by  King. 
Abgeordnetenhaus, —  432  members, —  chosen  by  electors 
who  represent  the  great  body  of  voters  in  ratio  of  1  to  250. 

7.  Education,  universal  and  compulsory. 

8.  Military  organization.     Statesman's  Tear  Book,  108. 

9.  Character  of  the  Hohenzollerns.     Importance  in  Prussian  his- 
tory.    Eulogistic  view  in  Whitman,  ch.  iv. 

a.  Bismarck  and  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.  Diary  of  the 
Emperor  Frederic;  Pall  Mall  Budget,  Oct.  4,  1888,  pp. 
24-31.  The  Morier  Incident.  N.  T.  Nation,  Jan.  10, 
1889,  p.  25. 


78 


LECTURE    XVI. 


THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE,  1871. 

Area,  211,196  sq.  mi.;  equal  to  Colorado  and  Nevada  joined; 
popul.  (1885),  47  m.  Area  of  foreign  colonial  dependencies,  591,000 
sq.  mi.     Population,  about  687,000. 

1.  Irresistible  current  of  public  opinion  in  South  Germany  in  1871, 
in  favor  of  unity  with  North  German  Confederation.  Influence  of 
war  with  France.  Initiative  of  Baden,  and  King  Louis  of  Bavaria. 
Milller,  460-468.  Proclamation  of  the  King  of  Prussia  as  Emperor, 
and  of  the  new  Empire,  made  at  Versailles,  Jan.  1  and  18,  1871. 

2.  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire,  April  16,  1871.  By  the 
terms  of  the  constitution,  the  states  of  Germany  formed  an  eternal 
union  under  the  supreme  direction  in  political  and  military  affairs  of 
the  King  of  Prussia,  who,  as  such,  bears  the  title  of  ''Deutscher 
Kaiser."  Lodge,  7 37.  Mutter,  463-467.  Sime,  267.  Baring- Gould: 
Germany,  168-170. 

a.  The  Emperor  (Kaiser)  represents  the  nation  internation- 
ally. 

(1)  Can  declare  defensive  war. 

(2)  Can  make  peace  and  treaties. 

(3)  To  declare  offensive  war,  the  Kaiser  must  have  consent 
of  the  Federal  Council.  Statesman's  Year  Book,  101. 
Lodge,  737.     Mutter,  463-467. 

b.  The  Bundesrath,  or  Federal  Council ;  62  members. 

(1)  Represents  the  governments,  and  appointed  by  them. 

(2)  Proposes  legislation. 

(3)  Controlled  by  Prussia. 

(4)  Supreme  administrative  and  consultative  Board  for  the 
Empire.  Mutter,  382,  383  ;  463  (note).  Baring-Gould, 
170-172. 


(flwl- 


79 


States  of  the  Empire. 


Kingdom  of  Prussia        .... 

"  "   Bavaria        .... 

m  a   Wiirtemberg        .  *     . 

M  "  Saxony          .... 

Grand  Duchy  of  Baden 

"  "        "    Mechlenburg-Schwerin 

"  "        "    Hesse    .... 

"  "        "    Oldenburg   . 

"  M        "    Saxe-Weimar 

"  "        "    Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
Duchy  of  Brunswick       .... 

"  "    Saxe-Meiningen 

«■  "    Anhalt 

"  M    Saxe-Coburg-G  otha 

**  "    Saxe-Altenburg 


Princ 


pality  of  Waldeck 
M    Lippe 


"    Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 
"    Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 
"    Reuss-Schleiz 
"    Schauniburg-Lippe 
M    Reuss  Greiz    .        .        .        . 
Free  town  of  Hamburg  .         .         .         . 

"        "      "    Liibeck 

"        "      "    Bremen 

Reichsland  of  Elsass-Lothringen     . 


Total 


Number  of 
Members  in 
Bundesrath. 


62 


Number  of 
Deputies  in 
Reichstag. 


236 

48 

17 

23 

14 

6 

9 

3 

3 

1 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
3 
1 
1 
15 


397 


Baring-Gould,  176-178. 

c.  The  Reichstag,  or  Diet ;  397  members,  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  (ballot)  for  term  of  three  years.  Annual  sessions. 
Emperor  can  prorogue  or  dissolve.  Confirms,  amends,  or 
rejects  proposals  of  Bundesrath.  Can  draft  bills  and  send 
them  to  Bundesrath.  Without  its  consent  the  State  can 
contract  no  loan.  Muller,  463  (note).  Baring-  Gould,  172, 
173. 

d.  Imperial  Chancery  (Ministry),  under  control  of  Imperial 
Chancellor  (Reichskanzler).  Ten  different  departments. 
"  There  is  no  provision  in  the  laws  of  the  Empire  for  bring- 
ing the  Chancellor  to  account."     Baring- Gould,  173,  174. 

e.  Strongly  centralized  nature  of  Government.  The  Hohen- 
zollern  prerogatives.  Restrictions  upon  the  Press.  Charac- 
ters of  the  three  Emperors  of  1888,  William  I,  Frederic  III, 
and  William  II.  Busch,  II,  ch.  iv.  Muller,  646.  Whit- 
man, chs.  v  and  xiii. 


80 


"  In  the  royal  rescript  of  January  4,  1882,  the  emperor,  speaking  in  his  character  as 
king  of  Prussia,  says  :  '  The  government  acts  of  the  king  require  the  countersignature  of  a 
minister,  and,  as  was  also  the  case  before  the  constitution  was  issued,  have  to  be  repre- 
sented by  the  king's  ministers,  but  they  nevertheless  remain  government  acts  of  the  king, 
from  whose  decisions  they  result,  and  who  thereby  constitutionally  expresses  his  will  and 
pleasure.  It  is,  therefore,  my  will  that  both  in  Prussia  and  in  the  legislative  bodies  of  the 
empire  there  may  be  no  doubt  left  as  to  my  own  constitutional  right,  and  that  of  my  suc- 
cessors, to  personally  conduct  the  policy  of  my  government,  and  that  the  theory  shall 
always  be  gainsaid  that  the  inviolability  of  the  king,  which  has  always  existed  in  Prussia, 
and  is  enunciated  by  article  43  of  the  constitution,  or  the  necessity  of  a  responsible  counter- 
signature of  my  government  acts,  deprives  them  of  the  character  of  royal  and  independent 
decisions.' "    Muller,  646. 

3.  Local  Governments  of  Germany. 

a.  Three  Free  Towns  —  republican. 

b.  All  other  States  hereditary  and  constitutional  monarchies, 
except  Mecklenburg-Schweriu,  which  has  yet  a  feudal  con- 
stitution. 

c.  Elsass-Lothringen.  Statthalter  (Gov.-Gen.)  appointed  by 
Emperor,  with  Council. 

(1)   Feeling  in  Elsass-Lothringen.     Muller,  497,  498. 

4.  Education.  Baring-  Gould,  185-187.  Whitman,  ch.  iii.  Gould: 
History  of  Germany,  ch.  vii. 

5.  The  Army.  Baring-  Gould,  181-183.  Whitman,  ch.  vii.  Gould, 
ch.  viii. 

6.  Social  Structure.  Baring-Gould,  ch.  viii.  Gould,  ch.  xiv. 
Whitman,  chs.  viii  and  ix. 

7.  The  Culturkampf  in  Germany.  Gould,  ch.  x.  Muller,  499- 
504,  630-636. 

8.  Financial  Policy.  Demonetization  of  silver,  1873.  Adoption 
of  Protective  Tariff,  1879.  Muller,  643,  644.  State  authorized  to 
purchase  railways,  1879.  Muller,  643.  Tobacco  monopoly ;  laborer's 
insurance. 

9.  Anti-Semitic  agitation,  1879.  Opposed  by  Frederic  III,  1888. 
Muller,  648,  649. 

10.  The  Alliance  of  Central  Europe,  1879. 

a.  Its  composition. 

b.  Its  motives :  to  push  Austro-Hungary  eastward,  to  check 
Russia  and  France,  to  strengthen  Italy,  to  preserve  peace. 
Fortnightly  Review,  Jan.,  1887,  p.  1. 

11.  The  Septennate  discussion,  1887.     Papal  action. 

12.  Social  Democracy  in  Germany.  Busch,  II,  ch.  v.  Gould,  430- 
437. 

a.  Programme  of  the  party  (1876).     Muller,  637. 

b.  Attempts  on  Emperor's  life  (1878).     Muller,  637,  638. 


81 


c.  Anti-Socialist  legislation.     Muller,  638-640. 

d.  Growth  of  the  party. 

12.  Political  parties  and  tendencies. 

a.  Account  of.     Muller,  495-498,  632,  633,  641,  645,  648. 

b.  Divisions  in  the  Reichstag  elected  Feb.,  1887  : 

(1)  Center  (Ultramontane),  101. 

(2)  Elsassers,  15. 

(3)  Poles,   12. 

(4)  German  Conservatives,  78. 

(5)  Imperialists  (Reichspartei),  42. 

(6)  National  Liberals,  97. 

(7)  German  Liberals,  32. 

(8)  Social  Democrats,  11. 

(9)  Independents  (anti-Semitic,  Guelph,  Dane,  "Wilde"),  8. 

13.  German  Colonization,  1884-. 

a.  The  East  African  slave  trade. 

b.  Samoa.      W.    L.    Bees:    "  German    Conduct   in    Samoa" 
Nineteenth  Century,  Nov.,  1888. 


LECTURE  XVII. 


FRANCE,  1815-1870. 

A.  Royalty,  1814-48. 

1815-30,  Louis  XVIII  and  Charles  X. 
1830-48,  Louis  Philippe. 

B.  Republic,  1848-52. 

C.  Empire,  1852-70. 

D.  Republic,  1870-. 

References  :  The  Student's  History  of  France.  Lebon  and  Pelet: 
France  as  it  is.  E.  Levasseur :  La  France  avec  ses  Colonies. 
J.  F.  Elton :  With  the  French  in  Mexico.  J.  G.  Scott :  France 
and  Tonghing.    A.  R.  Colquhoun :   The  Truth  about  Tonquin. 


82 


Area,  204,177  sq.  mi.,  twice  the  size  of  Colorado.  Population  over 
38  m.  Area  of  colonial  possessions,  953,062  sq.  mi.;  population  about 
26  m. 

A.  Royalty,  1814-1848. 

1.  Upon  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  {Fyffe,  II,  12-14.  Lodge, 
638-641.  Miiller,  90),  a  liberal  constitution  was  granted,  which  pro- 
vided for : 

a.  Limited  monarchy.     Fyffe,  II,  15,  16. 

b.  Legislative  power  vested  in  two  chambers  ;  the  Upper 
House,  or  Peers,  named  by  the  King,  and  the  Lower  House, 
or  Chamber  of  Deputies,  elected  by  the  people.  Fyffe,  II, 
14,  15. 

King  alone  proposed  laws,  but  Lower  House  controlled 
taxation. 

c.  Property  qualification  for  suffrage. 

d.  Responsible  ministers. 

e.  Freedom  of  the  press,  "  within  the  limits  necessary  to  pub- 
lic tranquillity." 

f.  Religious  toleration. 

g.  Land  titles  not  to  be  disturbed. 

2.  Reigns  of  Louis  XVIII  and  Charles  X.  Miiller,  79-102. 
"Gravitation  towards  a  monarchy  resting  on  the  middle  classes  (bour- 
geoisie)."    Fyffe,  II,  14-19,  31-77,  356-368.     Lodge,  657-660. 

a.  Domination  of  clerical  influence.     Ultra  Royalists. 

b.  Interference  in  Spain  in  behalf  of  Holy  Alliance,  and 
against  constitutional  rule  in  Spain,  1823. 

c.  Conquest  of  Algiers,  1 830. 

3.  Revolution  of  July,  1830 ;  "  The  Three  Days."  Fyffe,  II, 
368-381.     Lodge,  660-662.     Miiller,  99-101. 

a.  Causes : 

(1)  Freedom  of  the  press  suppressed.     Fyffe,  II,  368. 

(2)  Representative  government  restricted ;  the  number  of 
electors  limited  by  raising  the  suffrage  qualification. 
Fyffe,  II,  368. 

(3)  Control  of  the  King  by  the  "  Congregation"  (Jesuit 
and  clerical  party). 

(4)  Lafayette,  Talleyrand,  Thiers. 

b.  Results :  Charles  X  abdicated  ;  Duke  of  Orleans  succeeded 
as  Louis  Philippe.     Miiller,  102-112. 

"  In  comparison  with  the  Revolution  of  1789,  the  movement  which  overthrew  the  Bour- 
bons in  1830  was  a  mere  nutter  pn  the  surface.    It  was  unconnected  with  any  great  change 


83 


in  men's  ideas,  and  it  left  no  great  social  or  legislative  changes  behind  it.  Occasioned  by 
a  breach  of  the  constitution  on  the  part  of  the  Executive  Government,  it  resulted  mainly 
in  the  transfer  of  administrative  power  from  one  set  of  politicians  to  another  :  the  altera- 
tions introduced  into  the  constitution  itself  were  of  no  great  importance.  France  neither 
had  an  absolute  Government  before  1830,  nor  a  popular  Government  afterwards.  Instead 
of  a  representative  of  divine  right,  attended  by  guards  of  nobles  and  counseled  by  Jesuit 
confessors,  there  was  now  a  citizen.king,  who  walked  about  the  streets  of  Paris  with  an 
umbrella  under  his  arm  and  sent  his  sons  to  public  schools,  but  who  had  at  heart  as  keen  a 
devotion  to  dynastic  interests  as  either  of  his  predecessors,  and  a  much  greater  capacity 
for  personal  rule.  The  bonds  which  kept  the  entire  local  administration  of  France  in 
dependence  upon  the  central  authority  were  not  loosened  ;  officialism  remained  as  strong 
as  ever  ;  the  franchise  was  still  limited  to  a  mere  fraction  of  the  nation."     Fyffe,  II,  379. 

c.  Constitution  changed. 

(1)  Religious  sects  made  equal  in  the  eyes  of  the  law. 

(2)  Censorship  and  all  restrictions  upon  the  press  abolished. 

(3)  Power  of  the  King  to  suspend  laws  taken  away. 

(4)  The  privilege  of  initiative  in  legislation  extended  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies. 

4.  Parties  during  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe. 

a.  Legitimists,  desiring  a  king  of  the  Bourbon  family ;  their 
candidate  was  the  grandson  of  Charles  X,  the  Count  of 
Chambord,  also  called  Henry  V.     Mutter,  173. 

b.  Orleanists ;  since  the  death  of  Louis  Philippe,  his  grand- 
son, the  Comte  de  Paris,  has  represented  the  party.  Mutter, 
197. 

c.  Bonapartists ;  in  favor  of  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon, 
nephew  of  the  great  emperor. 

d.  Republicans  ;  in  favor  of  a  republic. 

5.  Reign  of  Louis  Philippe ;  causes  leading  to  his  overthrow. 
Fyffe,  II,  414-418,  503.  Lodge,  672-679,  682-686.  Mutter,  186- 
201. 

a.  The  laws  of  September,  1835  (Thiers),  to  restrict  the  press, 
on  account  of  several  attacks  made  upon  Louis  Philippe ; 
their  unpopularity  ;  rivalry  of  Thiers  and  Guizot.  Student's 
France,  686,  688. 

h.  Plotting  of  Louis  Napoleon  ;  1836,  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  raise  an  insurrection  among  the  troops  at  Strassburg; 
goes  to  America;  1841,  again  landed  in  France;  declared 
himself  emperor  ;  captured  and  imprisoned  for  six  years. 

c.  Failure  of  the  government  (Thiers),  in  its  support  of  the 
ambition  of  Mehemet  Ali,  Pasha  of  Egypt,  who  attempted 
to  make  himself  independent  of  Turkey,  against  the  wishes 
of  England,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  1840. 

w  France  proposed  that  all  Syria  and  Egypt  should  be  given  in  hereditary  dominion  to 
Mehemet  Ali,  with  no  further  obligation  towards  the  Porte  than  the  payment  of  a  yearly 


84 


tribute.  The  counter-proposal  of  England  was  that  Mehemet,  recognizing  the  Sultan's 
authority,  should  have  the  hereditary  government  of  Egypt  alone,  that  he  should  entirely 
withdraw  from  all  Northern  Syria,  and  hold  Palestine  only  as  an  ordinary  governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  Porte  for  his  life-time.  To  this  proposition  all  the  Powers,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  France,  gave  their  assent."    Fyffe,  II,  457. 

d.  Charges  of  avarice  on  the  part  of  the  king  ;  increased  his 
wealth  by  business  undertakings. 

e.  Charge  that  the  government  was  not  sincere  in  its  promise 
to  England  with  respect  to  the  Spanish  marriage;  this 
weakened  the  English  alliance.     Fyffe,  II,  504-506. 

f.  Foolish  return  of  Napoleon's  body  to  France,  1840. 

g.  Scarcity  and  want  in  1847,  which  aroused  the  Socialistic 
classes  ;  Louis  Blanc  ;  reform  banquets,  and  attempt  of  the 
government  (Guizot)  to  prevent  them  ;  riot  ;  abdication  of 
Louis  Philippe.     Fyffe,  II,  506-513. 

"  On  the  one  hand  were  the  Legitimists,  aiming  at  the  restoration  of  the  elder  branch 
of  the  Bourbons  ;  on  the  other  hand  there  were  the  Republicans,  who  wished  to  be  rid  of 
monarchy  altogether.  The  government  of  Louis  Philippe  satisfied  neither.  It  served  as  a 
transition,  or  temporary  halting-place,  in  the  progress  of  France  towards  the  goal  of  ra- 
tional and  stable  republicanism,  to  which  the  great  revolution  tended.  It  was  an  '  attempt 
to  put  new  wine  into  old  bottles.'  This  inherent  weakness  of  the  Orleans  rule  it  would 
have  been  difficult  by  any  means  to  neutralize  in  such  a  way  as  to  avert  sooner  or  later  a 
catastrophe.  The  unbending  conservatism  of  Guizot  — as  seen  in  his  refusal  to  extend 
suffrage  —  hastened  this  result.  A  government  over  which  less  than  half  a  million  of 
voters  of  the  middle  class  alone  had  an  influence  could  not  stand  against  the  republican 
feeling  of  the  country.  The  middle  class,  on  which  the  throne  depended,  became  separated 
from  the  advanced  party,  to  which  the  youth  of  France  more  and  more  rallied.  Guizot 
was  personally  upright ;  but  official  corruption  was  suffered  to  spread  in  the  last  years  of 
his  administration,  and  bribery  was  used  in  the  elections.  These  circumstances,  added  to 
the  mortification  of  national  pride  from  the  little  heed  paid  to  France  by  the  other  pow- 
ers, weakened  the  throne.  The  failure  of  the  government  to  support  the  cause  of  liberty 
in  Poland  and  Italy  was  another  important  source  of  its  growing  unpopularity."  Fisher: 
Outlines  of  Universal  History,  562. 

B.  The  Second  Republic,  1848-1852. 

1.  Dissensions  between  Moderates  (Lamartine)  and  Socialists  and 
Communists  (Ledru-Rollin,  Louis  Blanc). 

a.  Constitution.  Universal  suffrage,  single  chamber,  elected 
President. 

2.  Louis  Napoleon  chosen  President;  conflict  of  parties. 

a.  Monarchist. 

b.  Republican. 

c.  Bonapartist. 

d.  Socialist  and  Communist. 

e.  Power  of  the  clerical  party. 

/.  Coup  d'etat  in  1851.  The  Plebiscite.  Lodge,  709-715. 
Student's  France,  ch.  xxxiii. 


85 


3.  Successive  changes  in  the  constitution. 

a.  Louis  Napoleon's  appeal  to  the  people,  Dec.  20,  1851. 
"The  number  of  recorded  votes  was  7,439,216  to  646,757" 
in  Napoleon's  favor. 

"  In  the  Constitution  thus  granted  to  France  the  form  of  liberty  was  maintained,  but  its 
spirit  was  suppressed.  It  consisted  of  a  Legislative  Chamber,  a  Senate,  and  Council  of 
State.  The  Legislative  Chamber  was  to  be  elected  every  six  years  by  universal  suffrage, 
and  the  members  of  the  Senate  and  the  Council  of  State  to  be  nominated  for  life.  The 
President  was  elected  for  ten  years."    Ewald,  125. 

b.  Jan.  15,  1852.  "The  French  President  promulgated  a 
new  constitution  ;  the  whole  executive  power  to  be  vested 
in  the  President,  who  is  to  be  advised  by  a  state  council,  a 
senate  of  nobles,  and  a  completely  powerless  legislative 
assembly,  whose  transactions  at  the  demand  of  five  mem- 
bers may  be  secret."     Ewald,  125. 

c.  Dec.  2,  1852,  Louis  Napoleon  declared  "  Emperor  of  the 
French,  by  the  Grace  of  God  and  the  Will  of  the  People." 

C.  Empire,  1852-1871. 

1.  Napoleon  strengthened  his  position  : 

a.  .By  co-operation  with  England  in  the  Crimean  war. 

b.  By  assisting  Sardinia  in  ridding  Italy  of  Austrian  influence 
and  rule.     Acquisition  of  Savoy  and  Nice. 

c.  Appeared  as  protector  of  Papal  interests.  1860,  French 
garrison  at  Rome. 

d.  General  purposes  of  his  foreign  policy. 

2.  Power  weakened. 

a.  Dissatisfaction  with  his  arbitrary  rule. 

b.  Growing  importance  and  ambition  of  Prussia,  especially 
after  war  with  Austria,  1866 ;  failure  of  France  in  attempt- 
ing to  secure  more  territory. 

c.  Alienation  of  Italy,  by  sending  French  troops  in  1867  to 
keep  Garibaldi  out  of  Rome.     Miiller,  400,  401. 

d.  Interference  and  failure  in  Mexico,  1861-66.  Wells: 
Study  of  Mexico. 

3.  War  with  Prussia,  1870-71.    Miiller,  409-460.  Lodge,  734-736. 

a.  Causes  : 
General  Causes  : 

1.  **  The  idea  entertained  by  a  great  part  of  the  French  nation,  and  kept  alive  by  histori- 
ans, poets,  and  the  daily  press,  of  the  re-conquest  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 

2.  "  The  French,  not  understanding  the  long  struggle  of  the  German  nation  for  political 
unity,  saw  in  the  consummation  of  this  union  only  a  forcible  aggrandizement  of  Prussia, 
and  in  the  victory  of  the  latter  state  over  Austria  an  impermissible  encroachment  upon 
their  own  military  fame." 


86 

Special  Causes  ; 

1.  "  The  internal  troubles  of  the  government  of  Napoleon  III»    Growth  of  Constitutional 
Party.    New  Constitution,  1870.    Clerical  control  of  Napoleon."    J/ttMer,  3  88-394. 

2.  "  The  rejection  of  the  '  compensation '  demanded,  since  1866,  from  the  cabinet  of  Berlin, 
for  the  growth  of  Prussia,  in  extent  and  population. 

3.  "  News  of  the  approaching  introduction  of  an  improved  weapon  for  the  North  German 
infantry,  which  threatened  to  put  in  question  the  superiority  of  the  French  chassepot.'' 

Immediate  Cause  : 
"The  election  of  a  prince  of  Hoheneollern  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  Which  Was  repre» 
sented  in  Paris  as  a  Prussian  intrigue,  endangering  the  safety  of  France.  The  request 
made  by  the  French  ambassador  Benedetti  in  Ems  of  King  William  I,  in  person,  that  he 
Bhould  forbid  the  Prince  of  Hohenzollern  to  accept  the  Spanish  croWn,Was  refused.  After 
the  voluntary  Withdrawal  of  the  Prince,  the  French  government  looked  to  the  King  of 
Prussia  for  a  distinct  announcement  '  that  he  would  never  again  permit  the  candidacy  of 
the  Prince  for  the  Spanish  crown.'  King  William  refused  to  discuss  the  matter,  and  re» 
ferred  Benedetti  to  the  regular  method  of  communication  through  the  ministry  at  Berlin. 
This,  and  the  telegraphic  announcement  of  the  proceeding,  was  represented  by  the  Duke 
of  Gramont  as  an  insult  to  France*"     Ploetz,  513. 

b.  Results.     Milller,  460. 

(1)  Capture  of  Napoleon.  Fall  of  the  Empire  (Sedan), 
Aug.  31-Sept.  4,  1870.  (Death  of  Louis  Napoleon  in 
England,  .Tan.  9,  1873.) 

(a)  Government  of  National  Defence  (Gambetta,  Favre) 
proclaims  the  Third  Republic.      MUller,  439-443. 

(2)  Siege  and  capture  of  Paris,  Jan.,  1871.    Mutter,  457. 

(3)  General  election  of  a  National  Assembly  (Thiers)  to 
meet  at  Bordeaux,  Feb.  12,  1871.  Peace,  March  1  and 
2,  1871.     Terms: 

(a)  France  ceded  to  German  Empire  Alsace  and  part  of 
Lorraine  (4700  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  1.5  m.). 

(b)  Indemnity  of  $965  m.  within  three  years  ;  until  then, 
Prussian  occupation. 


LECTURE    XVIII, 


D.  Till:  THIRD  REPUBLIC,  1870 

1.  Presidential  administrations: 

a.  Thiers,  1871-73.     Mutter,  474,  475. 

b.  MacMahon,  1873-79.     Mutter,  475,  476. 

c.  Grevy,  1879-87.     Mutter,  620-629. 

d.  Sadi-Carnot,  1887. 


87 


2.  Insurrection  and  overthrow  of  the  Paris  Commune,  March  18 
to  May  28,  1871. 

"  Not  until  the  Commune  was  suppressed  could  the  French  government  provide  for  an 
orderly  and  systematic  administration  of  the  country.  It  had  before  it,  at  the  outset,  two 
aims,—  to  rid  the  land,  as  soon  as  possible,  of  the  German  troops,  and  to  improve  the  army 
according  to  the  Prussian  pattern.  As  large  sums  of  money  were  necessary  for  the  attain- 
ment of  both  these  aims,  a  great  strain  was  put  upon  the  taxable  strength  of  the  country. 
The  result  to  be  achieved  by  the  increase  of  the  army  was  not  the  strengthening  of  the 
defensive  power  of  the  country,—  for  a  peaceful  France  had  no  assaults  to  fear,—  but  a  war 
of  revenge  against  Germany.  The  lost  military  glory  must  be  restored,  and  the  ceded 
provinces  be  regained,  or  compensation  taken  elsewhere."    Muller,  471. 

3.  Strife  of  parties.  Failure  of  attempt  for  Bourbon  Restoration, 
1873.  Mutter,  474,  475.  Royalists  help  elect  MacMahon  President 
and  establish  a  Republican  Constitution,  intending  it  to  be  temporary, 
Milller,  611-613. 

4.  Constitution  of  1875.     Lebon,  75-84.    Levasseur,  835-839. 

a.  The  Executive  ;  President  of  the  Republic. 

(1)  Elected  by  National   Assembly,  composed   of    Senate 
and  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

(2)  Term  of  office  is  seven  years ;  reeligible. 

(3)  Powers;    among   others,    initiates    legislation    concur- 
rently with  the  two  chambers  ;  cannot  veto. 

(4)  Assisted  by  Ministers  (11   in  number),  who  form  the 
cabinet ;  these  responsible  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

b.  The  Legislature  ;  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

(1)  Senate,  300  members. 

"  The  election  of  Senators  is  by  an  indirect  process.  In  the  first  instance,  the  communes 
or  municipalities  of  France,  large  and  small,  elect  by  a  majority  of  their  members,  each 
one  delegate  or  more,  according  to  population.  The  delegates,  after  a  lapse  of  two  months, 
meet  together,  along  with  the  members  of  each  departmental  Council-General,  and  the 
deputies  of  the  department,  who  are  ex-officio  senatorial  electors,  to  choose  the  Senators. 
No  other  qualification  is  required  for  a  Senator  than  to  be  a  Frenchman,  at  least  forty 
years  of  age,  but  by  the  act  of  1884,  all  princes  of  deposed  dynasties,  are  precluded  from 
sitting  in  the  Upper  House.  Generals  or  admirals  on  active  service  are  also  debarred." 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  63. 

(2)  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

"  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  under  the  '  scrutin  de  liste,' 
adopted  by  the  National  Assembly,  June  16, 1885.  Each  department  forms  a  single  cir- 
cumscription or  electoral  district,  and  chooses  deputies  in  the  ratio  of  one  deputy  to  70,000 
inhabitants,  foreigners  not  included.  The  total  number  of  deputies  is  584, — 568  for  France, 
6  for  Algeria,  10  for  the  colonies.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elected  for  the  term  of  four 
years.  The  President  is  bound  to  convoke  them  if  demand  is  made  by  one  half  the  number 
of  members  composing  each  chamber.  The  President  can  adjourn  the  chambers,  but  the 
adjournment  cannot  exceed  the  term  of  a  month,  nor  occur  more  than  twice  in  the  same 
session.  The  Senate  has,  conjointly  with  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  right  of  initiating 
and  framing  laws."     Statesman's  Year  Book,  63, 64. 

5.  Elections  for  Chambers,  1876.  Monarchical  Senate  and  Repub- 
lican House. 


88 


a.  Reactionary  policy  of  MacMahon  under  Clerical  and  Royal- 
ist influence.  Gambetta,  Republican  leader.  Muller,  613- 
617.     Appeal  to  people,  Oct.  14,  1877. 

"  The  bishops  also  took  part  in  the  campaign,  and  threw  the  whole  weight  of  their  posi- 
tion on  the  side  of  the  government.  A  three  days'  supplication  was  decreed  for  the  favor- 
able issue  of  the  elections,  and  papal  absolution  offered  to  all  who  rendered  assistance  to 
the  marshal.  The  electoral  proclamations  of  the  Republicans  were  for  the  most  part  con- 
fiscated by  the  prefects  of  the  departments  in  which  they  were  issued.  On  the  12th  of 
October,  two  days  before  the  election,  the  President  issued  a  second  manifesto,  in  which 
the  voters  were  appealed  to  in  the  following  language  :  '  You  will  vote  for  the  candidates 
whom  I  recommend  to  your  free  choice.  Go  to  the  polls  without  fear.  Follow  my  sum- 
mons. I  myself  am  your  security  for  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  order.'  The  elections 
resulted  in  the  return  of  about  320  Republicans  and  210  Royalists,  112  of  whom  were  Bona- 
partists."     Muller,  616,  617. 

6.  Jan.  5,  1879,  Republicans  elect  majority  of  the  Senate.  Mac- 
Mahon resigns,  Jan.  30.  Grevy,  President.  Gambetta,  Speaker  of 
House. 

a.  Amnesty  to  Communards,  Blanqui,  Rochefort,  and  "Uln- 
transigeant."     Muller,  620,  623. 

b.  Removal  of  Legislature  from  Versailles  to  Paris. 

c.  The  Culturkampf  (Jules  Ferry).  Secularization  of  educa- 
tion.    Muller,  621,  622,  625.     Lebon,  142-145. 

7.  Effect  on  Bonapartist  party  of  death  of  Prince  Imperial,  June  1, 
1879.     Muller,  629,  630. 

8.  Acquisition  of  Tunis,  1881-82.     Lebon,  290-295. 

a.  Political  motives  of  French  colonial  policy.  Muller,  625- 
627. 

9.  Scrutin  de  liste  vs.  scrutin  d'arrondissement.  Lebon,  78.  Death 
of  Gambetta,  Dec.  31,  1882. 

10.  Claims  upon  Madagascar.  1882-85.  Lebon,  307-310.  D. 
Willoughby :  French  Aggression  in  Madagascar ;  Fortnightly  Review, 
March,  1887,  p.  432. 

11.  The  Tonquin  War,  1882-84. 

a.  Early  history  of  Anam  and  Tonquin.  In  200,  B.C.,  Chinese 
invaded  Farther  India,  and  conquered  a  large  portion  of  it. 
For  1000  years  Anam  a  part  of  Chinese  empire.  In  1418, 
a  revolt  occurred  and  the  Chinese  power  overthrown.  In 
1674,  the  kingdom  of  Anam  split  into  Anam  and  Tonquin, 
with  the  two  capitals,  Hue  and  Hanoi.  Both  countries  soon 
admitted  the  supremacy  of  China. 

b.  French  interference.  Conflicts  and  rivalry  of  Tonquin  and 
Anam.  Emperor  of  Anam  forced  to  flee  to  Siam,  where 
he  met  a  French  bishop,  through  whom    he  made  treaty 


89 

with  Louis  XVI  of  France,  in  1787.  France  to  reinstate 
the  Emperor  of  Anam,  and  Anam  to  cede  a  small  portion  of 
territory  to  France.  Reinstatement  of  Emperor.  French 
revolution  suspended  operations,  and  not  until  1858  did 
France  again  push  her  claims.  In  1862  and  1867,  cession 
of  six  provinces  called  Cochin  China.  In  1867,  French  pro- 
tectorate of  Cambodia.  In  1874,  French  protectorate  of 
whole  Anamite  Empire  by  treaty. 

c.  Fertility  of  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan;  reached  only  by 
Red  river  through  Tonquin. 

d.  Tonquin  war  began  in  1882.  China  re-asserted  her  old 
supremacy.     The  Black  Flags.     Scott,  12,  13,  26-37. 

12.  Government  of  French  Colonies.     Lebon,  276,  277,  311-316. 

a.  Relations  with  Siam  and  India.     Scott,  308-314,  369-372. 

13.  Death  of  Count  of  Chambord,  1883.      Fusion  of  Monarchists. 
a.  Expulsion  of  the  Orleans  and  Bonapartist  Princes,  1886. 

Hazell,  1887. 

14.  Administrative  scandals,  1887.     Resignation  of  Grevy.     Elec- 
tion of  Sadi-Carnot. 

15.  Boulanger  and  his  followers,  1887. 

a.  Demand  for  **  revenge." 

b.  Demand  for  revision  of  Constitution.  France  and  Boulang- 
ism  ;  Westminster  Review,  vol.  129,  pp.  748-764.  Fort- 
nightly Review,  Sept.,  1887,  p.  360;  July,  1888,  p.  10; 
Feb.,  1887,  p.  161. 

16.  Administration    of   Government.       Levasseur,  784-787,  825, 
835-839.     Lebon,  ch.  iii. 

a.  Finance  and  taxation.  Nominal  capital  of  National  Debt, 
over  five  billions  of  dollars.  Lebon,  248-262.  Levasseur, 
806-819. 

17.  The  churches  of  France.     Levasseur,  832-835.     Lebon,  ch.  iv. 

18.  Political  parties  and  their  tendencies.     Lebon,  84-95.    Nine- 
teenth Century,  Mar.,  1887,  p.  340. 

/  Legitimists.  ^    TT  .     ,  r>.  .  ~ 

United  Right,  or  Con- 
servatives. About 
180  members  in  the 

b.  Bouapartists :  \  .  Lower  House. 
(  victoriens.             ) 

c.  Conservative  Republicans.  Party  of  Center.  About  60  in 
House. 


a.  Monarchists  :  )  French  Carlists. 
(  Naundorffists. 


90 


d.  Opportunists  (Gambetta,  Ferry).     About  150  in  House. 

e.  Extreme  and  Radical  Republicans  (Clemenceau,  Floquet, 
Freycinet),  Party  of  Left.     About  160  in  House. 

/.  Intransigeants  (  Socialists- 


Communists. 
g.  Boulangists. 


LECTURE   XIX. 


ITALY,  AND  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  UNITY. 

References  :  A.  Gallenga :  Italy,  Present  and  Future.    E.  Dicey :  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel  (the  New  Plutarch  series).     J.  Theodore  Bent: 
Life  of  Giuseppe  Garibaldi.     M.  Francesco  Crispi  et  sa  poli- 
tique, Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Jan.  1,  1889. 
Area,  114,410  sq.  mi.,  size  of  Arizona.     Popul.,  about  30  m. 

1.  Italy  in  1815.  Muller,  23,  24.  By  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
Lombardy  and  Venetia  were  ceded  to  Austria. 

a.  In  northern  part  of  Italy  the  three  duchies  of  Tuscany, 
Parma,  and  Modena  ruled  by  princes  of  the  Hapsburg 
House,  and  the  duchy  of  Lucca  ruled  by  a  Bourbon  prince. 

b.  In  central  Italy,  the  Papal  States. 

c.  Kingdom  of  Naples,  called  "  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies," 
ruled  by  a  Bourbon  line.  Fyjfe,  II,  178-180.  Lodge,  631, 
632. 

d.  Northwestern  provinces,  ruled  by  the  King  of  Sardinia. 

(1)  History  of  the  House  of   Savoy.     Dicey:    Victor  Em- 
manuel, 18-25. 

(2)  In    1815,  kingdom  of  Sardinia  consisted  of  Sardinia, 
Piedmont,  Savoy,  Nice,  Turin,  and  Genoa. 

2.  Reactionary  policy  and  influence  of  Metternich  in  Italy  after 
1815.  Austrian  influence  supreme.  Dicey:  Victor  Emmanuel,  15- 
17.     Muller,  23-28.     lodge,  643,  644, 


91 


a.  Old  constitutions  re-established. 

b.  The  inquisition. 

c.  Restriction  of  the  press. 

d.  French  ideas  extirpated. 

3.  The  Carbonari,  in  Naples  and  Sicily  (1817),  secret  society. 
Fyffe,  II,  180-182.     Lodge,  644.     Mailer,  24,  25,  29,   129-131. 

4.  Attempts  at  revolution,  1820-21,  1831.  Both  suppressed  by 
Austria.     Lodge,  671. 

"The  revolution  of  1831,  which  affected  the  States  of  the  Church, 
Modena  and  Parma,  had  been  suppressed,  like  the  still  earlier  rebel- 
lions in  Naples  and  Piedmont,  by  Austrian  intervention.  If  revolu- 
tion had  fair  play  in  Italy,  it  was  sure  of  the  victory.  It  was  only 
foreign  power  for  which  it  was  not  yet  a  match.  Hence,  all  the  hatred 
of  the  Italians  was  directed  against  foreign  rule  as  the  only  obstacle 
to  the  freedom  and  unity  of  the  peninsula.  As  in  the  times  of  Bar- 
barossa  and  his  grandson,  so  also  in  the  forties  the  watchword  was  : 

*  Death  to  the  Germans  ! '  by  which  the  Austrians  were  now  meant. 
The  secret  societies  and  the  exiles  in  communication  with  them — 
especially  Joseph  Mazzini,  who  issued  his  commands  from  London — 
took  care  that  the  national  spirit  should  not  be  buried  beneath  mate- 
rial interests,  but  should  remain  ever  wakeful."     Mutter,  202. 

5.  Political  parties,  1840  : 

a.  Red  Republicans  ;  Mazzini  Society  of  Young  Italy.  Fyffe, 
II,  468.  Mutter,  170.  Lodge,  692.  Garibaldi,  "  caor  d'oro, 
ma  testa  di  bove." 

H  The  Italian  cause  from  the  beginning  was  not  political,  but  national.  Its  champions, 
from  Dante  to  Alfieri,  were  all  aristocrats.  It  was  Mazzini  who,  in  his  impatience  and  self- 
conceit,  raised  the  senseless  cry,  '  Dio  e  Popolo!"  But  Mazzini  was  not  a  democrat;  he 
was  an  autocrat.    Had  he  ever  had  his  way,  the  cry,  like  Mahomet's,  would  have  been, 

*  God  is  God,  and  Mazzini  is  His  Prophet.' "     Gallenga,  I,  183. 

b.  Federalists.  Federation  with  liberal  constitutions  favored 
by  Pius  IX  (1846).     Fyffe,  II,  471-474.     Lodge,  692. 

c.  Constitutional  Monarchists.  State  a  constitutional  monarchy 
under  the  King  of  Sardinia,  Charles  Albert.  Fyffe,  II, 
469,  470. 

6.  Revolution  of  1848.     Mutter,  202-211. 

a.  In  Sardinia,  King  Charles  Albert  leads  the  revolutionary 
movement.  Constitution  of  1848.  War  with  Austria  and 
defeat.  Abdication  of  Charles  Albert  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Victor  Emmanuel.     Mutter,  208-211.     Lodge,  693,  700. 

6.  Revolution  in  Rome  ;  sympathy  for  Sardinians,  and  demand 


92 


that  Pius  IX  declare  war  against  Austria ;  refusal.  Lodge, 
633,  695.  Republicans  force  the  Pope  to  withdraw  ;  French 
assistance  to  the  Pope ;  French  occupation. 

c.  Revolution  in  Naples.     Lodge,  693. 

d.  General  failure.     Lodge,  700,  701. 

"All  Italy  was  again  brought  under  its  old  masters.  The  expelled 
princes  returned  ;  the  Austrians  occupied  Bologna  and  Ancona ;  and, 
owing  to  the  valor  of  their  armies  and  the  skill  of  their  generals,  their 
dominion  seemed  invincible.  The  storm  that  had  raged  over  the  whole 
peninsula  had  subsided,  and  the  Italian  sun  smiled  once  more  ;  but 
Italian  hatred  of  foreign  rule  grew  ever  darker  and  darker.  They 
thought  that  they  now  knew  the  country  which  under  more  favorable 
constellations  would  renew  the  fight  with  Austria.  Notwithstanding 
Custozza  and  Novara,  the  Savoyard  cross  continued  to  be  the  hope  of 
Italy."     Mutter,  211. 

7.  Growth  of  Sardinia  (Piedmont).     Lodge,  717. 

a.  Siccardi  laws,  1851.  Abolition  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction. 

b.  Cavour,  Prime  Minister,  1852.  Policy  of  Sardinia's  share 
in  Crimean  war,  1854-56. 

"  The  keystone  of  Cavour's  policy  was  a  conviction  that  the  freedom  of  Italy  could  only 
be  achieved  with  external  assistance.  He  made  it  his  object  to  obtain  for  Piedmont  the 
respect  and  the  friendship  of  the  European  powers,  and  he  sterrdy  repressed  the  revolu- 
tionary projects  of  Mazzini  and  his  associates,  which  alienated  all  upholders  of  orderly 
government."    Lodge,  717. 

c.  Relations  between  Cavour  and  Napoleon  III.  France  sup- 
ports Sardinia  in  war  against  Austria,  1859.  Mutter, 
275-291.     Lodge,  719-721. 

(1)  Causes:  Austria  perceived  that  her  influence  in  Italy 
was  rapidly  disappearing.     Napoleon's  foreign  policy. 

"  A  subscription  was  raised  in  the  chief  towns  of  the  peninsula  to  assist  in  the  fortifica- 
tion of  Alessandria.  Austria  was  bitterly  exasperated,  and  the  Austrian  minister  was 
recalled  from  Turin.  It  was  evident  that  the  struggle  could  not  long  be  delayed.  Sardinia 
could  not  hope  to  contend  single-handed  with  Austria,  and  relied  for  assistance  upon  the 
sympathies  of  Napoleon  III. 

§<  Austria  refused  to  allow  that  Sardinia  should  be  represented  at  a  Congress  to  settle  the 
affairs  of  Italy,  and  finally  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Turin  demanding  disarmament  within 
three  days,  under  penalty  of  immediate  war.  This  was  exactly  what  Cavour  was  waiting 
for."    Lodge,  717,  719. 

(2)  Result.     Lodge,  720.     Ploetz,  502.     Treaty  of  Zurich, 
1859. 

(a)  Emperor  of  Austria  ceded  Lombardy  to  Napoleon 
III,  who  surrendered  it  to  Sardinia. 

(b)  Italy  to  form  a  confederation  under  Presidency  of 
Pope. 


93 


(c)  Sovereigns  of  Tuscany  and  Modena  who  had  been 
expelled  were  to  be  reinstated. 

(d)  Revolted  portions  of   Papal  States  (Bologna)  to  be 
restored,  "  but  without  foreign  intervention." 

d.  Last  three  provisions  not  observed.  Uprising  of  Northern 
Italian  people  for  union  with  Sardinia.  Annexations. 
Lodge,  722.  France  takes  Savoy  and  Nice.  Garibaldi 
(Campaign  of  the  One  Thousand)  overruns  kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies.     Lodge,  723,  724. 

e.  1861,  Victor  Emmanuel  assumed  title  of  King  of  Italy  ;  all 
Italy,  except  Venice  and  Rome,  under  his  rule ;  Florence 
made  the  capital.     Cavour  died,  June  6,  1861. 

8.  Italy  as  a  kingdom. 

a.  1861,  the  first  Italian  Parliament. 

b.  Italy  allied  with  Prussia  in  war  of  1866  ;  Venetia  added  to 
Italy  as  a  result.     Lodge,  731. 

c.  1871,  French  troops  recalled  from  Rome  during  Franco- 
Prussian  war;  Victor  Emmanuel  seized  Rome. 

9.  Political  supremacy  of  Party  of  Left  and  Left  Center,   1876  ; 
Rattazzi,  Depretis,  Crispi  (1887).      Gallenga,  I,  189-195. 

a.  The  condition  of  Sicily  and  Naples.  Secret  Societies  in  the 
Two  Sicilies  ;  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  42,  pp.  649-664. 

10.  "  Italia  Irredenta,"  1878. 

First  alliance  with  Germany  and  Austro-Hungary. 

11.  Extension  of  suffrage,  1880-82  ;  2,112,563  electors  instead  of 
621,896.      Gallenga,  I,  195-200. 

12.  Dissatisfaction  with  France  ;  Tunis,  1881-. 

a.  Colonial  policy.  Assab  (1883),  and  Massowah  (1885). 
War  with  Abyssinia,  1887.  Gallenga,  I,  chs.  3,  6.  Italy 
and  Abyssinia ;  Westminster  Review,  vol.  129,  1888,  pp. 
319-331. 

13.  Railway  Legislation.    Hadley :  Railroad  Transportation,  ch  xii. 

14.  The  Triple  League  of  Central  Europe,  1887,  probable  terms. 
Hazell,  1888.    Fortnightly  Review,  May,  1887,  p.  617. 

a.  Prime  Minister  Crispi.  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Jan.  1, 
1889,  p.  203. 

15.  Political  parties. 

a.  The  Ministerial  Left:  )  . 

(  Progressists. 

b.  The  Opposition  Left,  including  some  Socialists, 
Moderates,  and  Irredentists. 


94 


c.  The  Right,  Clericals.     Conservatives. 

(1)  Attitude  of  Clericals.     Policy  of  Abstention. 

15.  Government  of  Italy. 

a.  Constitutional  monarchy.  Constitution  granted  to  Sardinia 
in  1848. 

b.  Executive.     King,  who  rules  by  responsible  ministers. 

c.  Legislature. 

(1)  Senate,  composed  of  the  princes  of  the  royal  house  and 
of  unlimited  number  of  life  members  nominated  by  the 
king ;  "  a  condition  of  the  nomination  being  that  the  per- 
son should  either  fill  a  high  office,  or  have  acquired  fame 
in  science,  literature,  or  other  pursuit  tending  to  the  benefit 
of  the  nation,  or  finally  should  pay  taxes  to  the  annual 
amount  of  about  $600."    Senate  also  has  judicial  powers. 

(2)  Chamber  of  Deputies,  elected  by  ballot  and  by  scrutin 
de  Hate,  by  citizens  who  can  read  and  write  and  have  a 
small  prpperty  qualification.  Members  of  either  House 
unpaid,  but  travel  free. 

(3)  Sits  for  five  years;  can  be  dissolved  at  any  time  by 
king,  but  he  must  convoke  another  within  four  months. 

16.  San  Marino.  Independent  Republic  since  11th  century;  32 
sq.  mi. ;  8000  people.     Last  treaty  with  Italy,  1872. 

17.  Education.  Conventual  property  confiscated  (1866)  and  used 
for  schools.  Compulsory  primary  education,  under  state  control.  Law 
of  1884.      Gallenga,  II,  chs.  1,  6. 

18.  The  position  of  the  See  of  Rome. 

a.  The  Supreme  Pontiff.  "  By  the  terms  of  the  royal  decree 
of  Oct.  9,  1870,  which  declared  that '  Rome  and  the  Roman 
provinces  shall  constitute  an  integral  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,'  the  Pope  or  Roman  Pontiff  was  acknowledged 
supreme  head  of  the  Church,  preserving  his  former  rank 
and  dignity  as  a  reigning  prince,  and  all  other  prerogatives 
of  independent  sovereignty."     Statesman's  Tear  Book,  338. 

b.  College  of  Cardinals,  limited  in  number  to  70. 

c.  Sacred  Congregations,  at  present  twenty  in  number,  the 
most  famous  being  the  Congregations  of  the  Inquisition, 
Propaganda,  Index,  Indulgences,  and  Sacred  Relics. 


95 


LECTURE   XX. 


SWITZERLAND,  NKTIIER  LANDS,  BELGIUM. 

A.  Switzerland. 

Area,  15,800  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  3  m.  59  per  cent  of  population 
Protestants  ;  41  per  cent  of  population  Catholics. 

1.  Increase  of  territory  by  Congress  of  Vienna.  New  constitution 
(1815)  aristocratic,  and  tending  to  disunion.  League  of  22  Cantons. 
Lodge,  630,  669. 

a.  Neufchatel,  both  Swiss  and  Prussian. 

b.  Domination  of  city  patricians,  1815-30. 

2.  Revolution,  1830.  City  vs.  County.  Democratic  success. 
"  Siebener-Concordat "  (1832).  Liberal  League  overthrows  "  Sarner 
Bund."  Conservative  League,  1834.  Lodge,  670.  Mailer,  127,  128, 
169. 

a.  Liberal  demand  for  Constitutional  revision. 

b.  Right  of  Asylum.  • 

c.  Religious  dissensions,  1834-45.     Muller,  170.     Lodge,  687. 

3.  Civil  war  between  Liberal  and  Protestant  Cantons,  and  Catholic 
and  Conservative  Cantons  (Sonderbund),  1847.  Overthrow  of  Son- 
derbund  and  establishment  of  a  National  Government  in  place  of  old 
League. 

"  All  the  cantons  had  to  yield,  and  accept  the  conditions  of  peace  which  were  dictated  to 
them.  Among  these  were  payment  of  the  expenses  of  the  war,  a  change  of  government  in 
the  cantons,  the  dissolution  of  the  Sonderbund,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  In  a  few 
weeks  all  was  accomplished.  Then  the  reform  of  the  Helvetian  constitution  was  proceeded 
with,  and  in  1848  the  new  federal  state  was  established.  The  Standerath  forms  a  sort  of 
upper  house,  which  is  to  represent  the  governments  of  the  several  cantons  ;  while  the  Na- 
tionalrath  forms  a  lower  house,  which  is  elected  by  the  people  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion. By  this  united  congress  the  highest  tribunal  of  Switzerland  —  the  Bundesrath  —  is 
chosen,  and  at  the  head  of  this  is  a  president."    Muller,  172. 

4.  Culturkampf,  1873-80.  Strength  of  Old  Catholics  in  Switzer- 
land. Liberal  revision  of  Constitution  accepted,  1874,  in  interest  of 
educational  and  ecclesiastic  reforms.     Muller,  491,  492. 


96 


a.  Clerical  political  agitation  prohibited. 

b.  Freedom  of  burial. 

c.  Compulsory  civil  marriage. 

5.  The  Railway  Question,  1886-87. 
a.  The  Tunnels.     Muller,  609. 

6.  Government.     Federal  Republic.     See  §3,  ante. 

a.  Nationalrath,  145  members,  chosen  by  manhood  suffrage. 

b.  Standerath,  two  members  from  each    canton. 
The  two  chambers  elect : 

c.  Bundesrath.     Federal  (Executive)  Council,  for  three  years. 

d.  President  and  Vice-President  of  Republic  and  Council,  for 
one  year. 

e.  Bundes- Gericht.     Federal  Tribunal,  for  six  years. 
/.  The  Referendum. 

7.  Local  Government. 

a.  Cantonal  Sovereignty. 

b.  The  Landesgemeinde. 

B.     The  Netherlands. 

References:    T.  C.  Grattan:   History  of  the  Netherlands.      J.  T. 
Rogers :  Holland  (Story  of  the  Nations  Series). 
Area,  12,648  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  about  4£  m.    Area  of  colonial  posses- 
sions, 766,137  sq.  mi.     Population  of  colonial  possessions,  over  28  m. 

1.  1795-1806,  Batavian  Republic. 

2.  Kingdom  of  Holland,  1806-15.     Louis  Bonaparte,  king.     Eng- 
land seizes  colonial  possessions  of  Holland. 

3.  1815,  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  equalled  former  Holland  and 
Austrian  Belgium  ;  under  William  I. 

a.  Cape  Colony  and  Ceylon  retained  by  England. 

b.  Luxemburg  given  to  personal  charge  of  King  of  Holland, 
as  head  of  family  of  Orange-Nassau.     Fyffe,  II,  387,  388. 

"  The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  created  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  had  been  formed 
by  the  enforced  union  of  two  utterly  different  elements,  the  Protestant  commercial  state  of 
Holland,  which  was  of  like  nationality  with  its  sovereign,  and  the  Catholic  manufacturing 
country  of  Belgium,  which  was  divided  between  the  Flemish  and  Walloon  nationalities, 
but  was  pervaded  by  French  culture."    Ploetz,  489. 

4.  Separation  of  Belgium,  1830.     (See  below.) 

5.  The  Luxemburg  Question,  1866-70.     Muller,  369-371. 

a.  Again,  from  1884  (death  of  Prince  of  Orange)  to  1889. 

6.  Government.    Constitutional  hereditary  monarchy,  King,  Minis- 
try, and  two  Houses  of  the  States-General.      Liberal  Constitution, 


97 


1814;  revised  in  1834-36,  1848-87.     In  1887,  extension  of  suffrage. 

7.  Local  Government. 

a.  Communal  Councils. 

b.  States  Provincial. 

8.  Education. 

9.  Political  parties  and  tendencies.  Religious,  theological,  and 
educational  questions,  the  main  causes  of  difference. 

a.  Liberals,  in  control  generally  since  1815. 

b.  Anti-Liberals,  Catholics  and  Orthodox  (extreme)  Protest- 
ants. 

C.     Belgium. 

1.  Separated  from  Holland,  1830.  Nine  provinces.  Area,  11,373 
sq.  m. ;  popul.,  about  6  m. 

2.  Cause  of  the  insurrection  was  the  underlying  discord  always 
present  between  the  two  sections  of  the  country.  The  two  countries, 
Holland  and  Belgium,  did  not  have  the  same  language  or  the  same 
religious  or  commercial  interests.     Fyffe,  II,  381-390. 

"  The  Belgians  complained  that  they  were  saddled  with  part  of  the  burden  of  the  enor- 
mous national  debt  of  Holland  ;  that  they  contributed  to  the  building  of  Dutch  ships  and 
other  objects  from  which  they  derived  no  benefit  whatever.  Their  discontent  was  also 
increased  by  the  unpopular  government  of  King  William  I,  who  treated  Belgium  like  a 
conquered  country."     Eimtd,  79. 

"  The  antagonism  between  the  northern  and  southern  Netherlands,  though  not  insuper- 
able, was  sufficiently  great  to  make  a  harmonious  union  between  the  two  countries  a  work 
of  difficulty,  and  the  Government  of  the  Hague  had  not  taken  the  right  course  to  conciliate 
its  opponents.  The  Belgians,  though  more  numerous,  were  represented  by  fewer  members 
in  the  National  Assembly  than  the  Dutch.  Offices  were  filled  by  strangers  from  Holland; 
finance  was  governed  by  a  regard  for  Dutch  interests  ;  and  the  Dutch  language  was  made 
the  official  language  for  the  whole  kingdom.  But  the  chief  grievances  were  undoubtedly 
connected  with  the  claims  of  the  clerical  party  in  Belgium  to  a  monopoly  of  spiritual  power 
and  the  exclusive  control  of  education.  The  one  really  irreconcilable  enemy  of  the  Protest- 
ant House  of  Orange  was  the  Church  ;  and  the  governing  impulse  in  the  conflicts  which 
preceded  the  dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  in  1830,  sprang  from  the  same 
clerical  interest  which  had  thrown  Belgium  into  revolt  against  the  Emperor  Joseph  forty 
years  before."     Fyffe,  II,  382.    Muller,  112-121. 

3.  Independence  was  recognized  by  the  foreign  powers,  and,  in 
1831,  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  was  chosen  king;  reigned 
until  1865. 

4.  Clericalism.  Educational  and  political  power  of  the  clergy. 
Miiller,  490,  604. 

5.  Culturkampf,  1878-.    Liberals  vs.  Ul tramontanes. 

a.  Liberal  regime,  1878-84.    Influence  of  French  politics  upon 
Belgium.     Miiller,  604-606. 

(1)   "Liberal"  Education    Act,  1879,  deprived    clergy  of 
school  supervision. 


98 


b.  Clerical  reaction,  1884.     Partial  control  of  primary  educa- 
tion given  to  communes. 

c.  Agitation  for  universal  suffrage,  1886.      Industrial  disturb- 
ances, 1886-87.      Hazell,  43. 

6.  Political  Parties. 

a.  Clericals  (Catholics). 

b.  Liberals. 

c.  Radicals,  Socialists,  advanced  Liberal  programme.    Constit- 
uency mainly  unenfranchised. 

7.  Hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.     Property  qualification  for 
suffrage.     Statesman's  Tear  Booh,  35. 

8.  Relations   of  Belgium   to  France  and  Germany.      Fortnightly 
Review,  Jan.,  1887,  pp.  24-28. 

a.  Luxemburg,  upon  the  death  of  the  present   King  of  the 
Netherlands. 


LECTURE   XXL 


THE  SCANDINAVIAN  KINGDOMS. 

A.     Sweden  and  Norway. 

References  :  B.  Moses :  The  Crown  and  Parliament  of  Sweden,  in 
The  Berkeley  Quarterly,  Oct.,  1880.  Home  Rule  in  Norway, 
Nineteenth  Century,  Jan.,  1888.  E.  C.  Otte  :  Scandinavian 
History  (to  1872).  H.  H.  Boyesen :  Norway  (Story  of  the 
Nations  Series).  J.  W.  Burgess :  Recent  Constitutional  Cri- 
sis in  Norway,  Political  Science  Quarterly,  I,  259-294. 
Area   (Sweden),  170,979  sq.  mi.    Population,  4.7  m.     (Norway), 

123,205  sq.  mi,     Popul.,  about  2  m,      Total  area  a  little  larger  than 

Texas. 


99 


1.  Union  of  Calmar,  1397  ;  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  united 
under  princes  of  Denmark.  Independence  of  Sweden  established 
under  Gustavus  Vasa,  1521-23. 

a.  Territory  in  1800,  Sweden,  Finland,  Pomerania. 

2.  Peace  of  Tilsit,  1807.  Russia  seizes  Finland.  Representa- 
tive constitution  established  in  Sweden,  1809  ;  ancient  Diet  of  the 
four  classes,  or  estates,  preserved.  Napoleon's  Marshal,  Bernadotte, 
chosen  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  1810.     Lodge,  598,  599. 

a.  The  Four  Estates.     Moses,  8-11,  25. 

3.  Treaty  of  Kiel  and  Vienna,  1814.  Loss  of  Pomerania.  Acqui- 
sition of  Norway  from  Denmark. 

a.  Norwegian  resistance  and  claim  of  independence  unsuccess- 
ful.    Nineteenth  Century,  Jan.,  1888,  p.  55. 

"  Union  of  the  two  kingdoms  declared  indissoluble  and  irrevocable  without 
prejudice  to  the  separate  government,  constitution,  and  code  of  laws  of  either 
Sweden  or  Norway."     Statesman's  Year  Book,  482. 

4.  Constitutions  and  government. 

«.  Sweden,  1809, 1810,  1866.  Hereditary  constitutional  mon- 
archy. King  must  be  a  Lutheran,  possesses  legislative 
power  in  matters  of  political  administration.  Responsible 
ministry.  Diet  of  two  chambers,  the  first  elected  by  prov- 
inces and  municipalities. 

b.  Norway.  Hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  Responsible 
ministry.  King  has  only  a  suspensive  veto  on  legislation, 
and  is  restricted  in  power  of  appointment  to  office.  Large 
legislative  and  judicial  powers  of  the  Assembly,  or  Stor- 
thing, elected  indirectly  ;  meets  annually. 

c.  Affairs  common  to  the  two  nations  decided  in  a  Council  of 
State,  in  which  both  nations  are  represented. 

o.  Abolition  of  nobility  in  Norway,  1821. 

6.  Agitation  in  Sweden  for  Constitutional  Reform,  1840-66.  New 
(and  present)  constitution,  1866.     Moses,  32. 

a.  Compulsory  military  service,  1872. 

7.  Home  rule  in  Norway.  National  resistance  to  Swedish  propo- 
sals for  closer  union,  1821-30,  1836,  1839,  1857. 

Not  until  1865  were  subjects  of  the  two  kingdoms  allowed  to  settle  and  trade  at  will  in 
either  country. 

8.  Nationalist  struggle  to  establish  absolute  supremacy  of  the 
Diet  over  the  royal  veto,  1872-84.     Nineteenth  Century,  58-61. 

a.  Influence  of  Norwegian  emigrants  to  the  United  States. 

b.  Surrender  of  the  King  (the  Sverdrup  ministry),  1884. 


100 


c.  Radicals  (Bjoernsen)j  Liberals  (Sverdrup),   and  Conserva- 
tives. 
9.  Agitation  for  extension  of  the  suffrage  in  Sweden,  1880-. 

B.     Denmark. 

References  :  The  Contemporary  Review,  April,  1886,  p.  579.  E. 
C.  Otte:  Scandinavian  History  (to  1872).  E.  C.  Otte:  Den- 
mark and  Iceland  (Foreign  countries  and  British  Colonies 
Series).  F.  M.  DeBorring :  Notes  from  a  Prosperous  Agricul- 
tural Country,  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  43,  pp.  707-718. 
Area,  14,124  sq.  mi.     Population,  2  m. 

1.  Question  of  succession  to  the  Duchies  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 
Danish  success  in  the  wars  of  1848-51.  Ploetz,  496.  Muller,  218, 
219,  245-247. 

a.  Incorporation  of  Schleswig.     Muller,  309. 

2.  Excitement  in  Germany,  1863-64.  Austria  and  Prussia  seize 
the  Duchies,  1864.     Muller,  310-317. 

3.  Sympathy  with  France  in  1870.     Muller,  424. 

4.  Constitutional  struggle  between  the  Executive  and  the  Lower 
House  of  the  legislature  concerning  the  responsibility  of  Ministers, 
1876.      Contemporary  Review,  581-586. 

5.  Political  attitude  of  Denmark  towards  Germany,  Muller,  610, 
611  ;  towards  England  and  Russia. 

6.  Government.  Hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  Riksdag, 
or  Parliament,  two  Houses.  Upper  House  elected  indirectly,  repre- 
sents in  general  the  wealthy  class.  Lower  House  elected  directly  by 
universal  suffrage. 

7.  Colonies.     Area,  86,614  sq.  mi.     Population,  116,000. 

a.  Iceland,  separate  constitution  and  government,  1874. 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  52.  Otte  :  Denmark  and  Iceland, 
ch.  xiii. 


101 


LECTURE    XXII. 


THE  IBERIAN  PENINSULA  :   PORTUGAL,  SPAIN, 

A.  Portugal  (with  Brazil). 

References:  J.  H.  Harrison:  History  of  Spain,  chs.  xxv-xxviii.    J. 
R.  Seeley :  The  Spanish  Revolution,  in  The  Life  and  Times  of 
Stein,  pp.  71-102.     M.  M.  Busk:   History  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal.    W.   E.    Curtis:     The    Capitals   of  Spanish    America. 
Anfriso  Fialho :  Don  Pedro  II,  Empereur  du  Bresil.    Spring 
Time  in  Portugal,  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  43,  pp.  483-493. 
M.  G.  Liana  :  Political  Parties  in  Spain,  Fortnightly  Review, 
vol.  39,  pp.  106-120.      H  M.  Field:   Old    Spain   and  New 
Spain.     Rev.   Wentworth  Webster:  Spain  (Foreign  Countries 
and  British  Colonies  Series). 
Area  (including  Azores  and  Madeira),  34,038  sq.  mi.    Population, 
4,708,178.     Area  of  colonial  possessions,  705,258  sq.  mi.     Popula- 
tion,  3^  m.      Former  large  colonial  possessions  diminished  during 
period  of  subjection  to  Spain,  1580-1640. 

1.  Napoleon's  forces  (Junot)  occupy  Portugal,  1807 ;  driven  out 
by  the  English  (Moore,  Wellington),  1808-11;  flight  of  Portuguese 
Court  to  Brazil,  1807.     Fialho,  8.     Bush,  261,  262,  267,  268-270. 

a.  Cause  of  French  occupation,  a  refusal  to  prohibit  trade  with 
England. 

2.  Portugal  ruled  from  Brazil,  1807-21  ;  supremacy  of  English 
influence  in  Portugal.  Yeats :  Growth  and  Vicissitudes  of  Commerce, 
pp.  327,  328.     Mutter,  56. 

a.  Uprising  for  a  constitution,  1820,  and  return  of   the  king, 

1821.     Miiller,  57. 

b.  Treaty  with  Brazil  as  an  independent  nation,  1825.  "  In  a 
secret  article  it  was  ordained  that  the  two  crowns  should 
never  be  united  upon  one  head."     Miiller,  58. 


102 


3.  Reactionary  'opposition  to  constitutional  government  (Queen 
CarlotU.  Dotf  Miguel),  1821-26 

4.  Civil '  wars  betwe'eri  Migiielists  (Clericals,  Reactionaries)  and 
Pedrists  (Queen  Maria  da  Gloria,  daughter  of  Don  Pedro  I  of  Brazil, 
elder  brother  of  Miguel,  Constitutionalists),  1826-34.  Liberal  Con- 
stitution, 1826.  Interference  of  England  ;  Miguelists  and  Spanish 
Carlists  ;    defeat  of  Miguel,  1834.     Mullet,  58-61. 

a.  Conventual  establishments  suppressed  and  property  confis- 
cated, 1834. 

5.  Marriage  of  Maria  da  Gloria  with  Ferdinand  of  Coburg,  April, 
1836.  The  constitution  disregarded  ;  civil  wars,  1836-51.  Duke  of 
Saldanha.  Similarity  of  political  movements  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Muller,  148. 

6.  Government.  Constitution  of  1826,  revised  1852,  1878,  1885. 
Hereditary  constitutional  monarchy,  responsible  ministry ;  monarch 
has  only  suspensory  veto  upon  acts  of  Cortes,  or  Parliament.  Cortes, 
two  chambers  ;  Lower  House  chosen  by  citizens  who  can  read  and 
write  and  have  an  annual  income  of  about  $100,  and  by  heads  of 
families  ;  Upper  House,  Peers.  Law  of  1885  provides  for  gradual 
abolition  of  hereditary  peerages  and  substitution  of  elected  life  Peers. 
Statesman  s  Year  Book,  387. 

7.  Brazil.  Area,  3  m.  sq.  mi.  ;  a  little  smaller  than  the  United 
States  ;  popul.,  about  12  m.  A  colony  of  Portugal  after  beginning 
of  16th  century.      Pope's  Bull  of  1493.     Ploete,  282.      Curtis,  687. 

a.  Residence  of  Portuguese  royal  family  in  Brazil,  1808-21 ; 
ante,  §  1,  2.  Brazil  declared  a  kingdom,  1815  ;  dissatisfac- 
tion. 

b.  Dom  Pedro  I,  eldest  son  of  King,  left  as  regent  in  Brazil, 
1821 ;  independence  declared,  1822,  and  recognized  by  Por- 
tugal, 1825.  Muller,  58.  Struggle  between  the  Liberals 
and  the  Emperor,  1825-31.  "I  will  do  everything  for  the 
people,  but  nothing  by  the  people."  Accession  of  Dom 
Pedro  II,  1831.     Fialho,  9-15. 

c.  Rapid  progress  of  Brazil;  suppression  of  slave  trade,  1852. 
Fialho,  34.  Assertion  of  strength  against  neighboring 
states,  Buenos  Ay  res,  1852,  Uruguay,  1863,  Paraguay 
(overthrow  of  tyrant  Lopez),  1865-70.  Fialho,  42-56. 
Muller,  299. 

(1)  German  and  Swiss  colonists  in  the  southeast. 


103 


d.  Culturkampf,  1873-75.  Illegal  measures  of  Catholic 
bishops  against  Free  Masonry.  Fialho,  74-80.  Mutter, 
493,  654. 

(1)   Present  attitude  of  Liberal  party;  the  struggle  about 
religious  orders  and  their  property.      Curtis,  690-693. 

e.  The  labor  question.  Abolition  of  slavery ;  first,  slaves 
serving  as  soldiers  in  the  Paraguayan  war,  1867;  second, 
gradual  emancipation  Act,  1872.  Law  of  the  "Free  Birth." 
Fialho,  59-62.  Third,  wholesale  emancipation  by  the  prov- 
ince of  Ceara,  1881;  fourth,  gradual  emancipation  Act,  1885. 
Liberating  the  Slaves  in  Brazil ;  Nineteenth  Century,  July, 
1888,  pp.  94-105.  Hazell :  Brazil.  Statesman 's  Year  Book, 
575.  Curtis,  702-706.  Fifth,  final  emancipation  Act,  1888. 
Over  one  million  slaves  set  free. 

f.  Government.  A  hereditary  constitutional  empire  since 
1822.  Dom  Pedro  I  and  the  works  of  Benjamin  Constant. 
The  sovereign  as  a  "  Moderator ";  responsible  ministry ; 
two  Houses  of  legislature,  both  elected  by  people.  Lalor's 
Cyclopedia,  I,  306,  307.     Statesman's  Tear  Book,  567,  568. 

B.    Spain. 

Area,  197,000  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  17  m.  Colonial  area,  163,876  sq.  mi. 
Colonial  population,  about  10  m. 

1.  Wretched  condition  of  Spain  prior  to  Napoleon's  invasion,  1807. 
Godoy,  *'  Prince  of  the  Peace."  Harrison,  614-627.  Loss  of  Louisi- 
ana.    Harrison,  621. 

a.  Spanish  resistance  to  the  Bonapartes,  directed  by  England 
(Wellington),  1807-13. 

b.  By  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  the  Bourbons  of  the  old  dynasty 
were  restored  to  power,  and  the  government  established  by 
Napoleon  was  set  aside.  Strength  and  significance  of  popu- 
lar resistance  in  Spain  to  Napoleon.  Seeley,  74-84.  Harri- 
son, 632-644. 

c.  Liberal  Constitution,  established  by  the  National  Cortes, 
1812,  under  English  influence,  ignored  after  the  Restoration. 

"  This  constitution  inaugurated  representative  government  in  Spain,  abolished  torture, 
the  Inquisition,  and  most  of  the  convents,  founded  the  liberty  of  the  citizen  and  the  press, 
and  improved  the  judiciary.  The  seignorial  rights  attached  to  13,309  out  of  the  25,320  vil- 
lages of  the  peninsula  were  abolished,  and  though  the  nine  thousand  men's  convents  of 
1626  had  fallen  to  two  thousand  and  fifty  in  1808,  these  were  considerably  reduced.  But 
unfortunately  this  brilliant  constitution  died  even  before  it  was  born,  and  was  succeeded 
by  an  absolute  monarchy  which  utterly  crushed  it."    Harrison,  643. 


104 


2.  Ferdinand  VII,  restored  in  1814.  Character.  Harrison,  645- 
653.  Muller,  43,  44.  Grant  Duff,  5.  Rule  of  the  "  Serviles." 
Influence  of  the  Camarilla,  courtiers,  and  priests.  Despotism.  Bitter 
opposition  to  the  Constitutionalists.     50,000  political  prisoners. 

a.  Revolution  in  1820.  Ferdinand  forced  to  swear  obedience 
to  the  constitution  of  1812. 

"The  patriots  of  1812  could  no  longer  endure  in  patience  the  pain  and  need  of  their 
country,  and  their  rage  discharged  itself,  in  the  years  1814  to  1819,  in  nine  attempts  at  revo- 
lution, which,  as  the  work  of  individuals,  and  representing  little  force,  collapsed  like  riots, 
and  were  suppressed  with  little  trouble."    Muller,  44. 

b.  Interference  by  the  Holy  Alliance.  Intervention  and  inva- 
sion of  the  French,  1823,  to  support  Ferdinand  in  his  contest 
with  the  Cortes.  Constitutional  government  defeated. 
Muller,  48-50. 

c.  Revolt  of  American  colonies,  1810-24.     Muller,  54,  55. 

3.  Death  of  Ferdinand,  1833.  Muller,  53.  Lodge,  679.  Civil 
war,  1833-40.  Muller,  143-146.  Isabella  II,  daughter  of  Ferdinand, 
supported  by  the  constitutional  party.  The  repeal  of  the  JSalic  law. 
Muller,  53.     The  Estatuto  Real,  1834.     Harrison,  665,  666. 

a.  The  Queen  Regency.  Revolt  of  the  Carlists,  supporters  of 
Don  Carlos,  brother  of  Ferdinand,  or  Absolutists.  The 
Carlist  provinces.  Harrison,  655-661.  Overthrow  of  Carl- 
ists by  Espartero,  1839.  Harrison,  673,  674.  Muller,  144, 
145. 

b.  1837,  the  Queen  Regent  (Christina)  took  the  oath  to  sup- 
port the  revised  constitution.     Muller,  146.     Grant  Duff,  8. 

c.  Continued  insurrections.     Grant  Duff,  10-13. 

d.  Espartero,  Regent,  1840-43. 

e.  1843,  Isabella  declared  of  age  and  assumed  the  government. 
Recall  of  Christina,  who  had  fled  in  disgrace  to  France  in 
1840. 

"  Thereby  gate  and  doors  were  opened  to  the  French  influence,  and  the  game  of  intrigue 
and  reaction  commenced.  In  1845,  the  constitution  of  1848  was  altered  in  the  interests  of 
absolutism.  The  freedom  of  the  press  was  restricted,  the  national  guard  abolished,  and  the 
Cortes  relegated  to  an  existence  even  more  nominal  than  that  of  the  French  Chambers." 
Muller,  147. 

f.  Divisions  of  the  Liberal  or  Constitutional  party  at  this  time. 

(1)  Progresistas  (Espartero).     The  Constitution  of  1837. 
English  sympathy. 

(2)  Union-Liberal.     O'Donnell. 

(3)  Moderados  (Narvaez).      The  Estatuto  Real.      Under 
influence  of  Louis  Philippe's  government. 

(4)  Democratic  Progresistas  (Republicans,  Socialists). 


105 


g.  Supremacy  of  Narvaez,  friend  of  Christina,  1844-51.  Isa- 
bella's marriage  and  the  French  policy.  Lodge,  680. 
Reactionary  constitution,  1845. 

"  We  have  already  seen  that  the  constitution  of  1837  was  less  liberal  than  that  of  1812. 
That  of  1845  was  in  its  turn  far  less  liberal  than  its  predecessor.  The  liberty  of  the  press 
was  curtailed  ;  the  Senate  became  a  nominated,  not  an  elective,  body  ;  the  Cortes  lost  its 
right  of  assembling  by  its  own  authority,  in  case  the  Sovereign  neglected  to  summon  it  at 
the  proper  time  ;  and  the  principle  of  the  national  sovereignty  disappeared  from  the  pre- 
amble. The  most  significant  change,  however,  in  the  circumstances  of  the  hour,  was  that 
which  precluded  the  necessity  of  the  approbation  of  the  Cortes  as  a  preliminary  to  the  royal 
marriage.  This  was  the  event  which  was  the  pivot  of  intrigue  for  several  years."  Grant 
Buff',  15,  16. 

(1)  Catholic-Absolutist  triumph,  1851-54.     Harrison,  682. 

k.  Revolt  of  1854.  Espartero  and  O'Donnell,  1854-63.  New 
liberal  Constitution,  1855.  Resistance  of  Queen  and  Court 
party.  Character  of  Isabella.  Harrison,  685-690,  691- 
693. 

i.  Triumph  of  Court  party,  1863-68.  Frequent  unsuccess- 
ful pronunciamentos,  O'Donnell,  Prim,  Serrano.  Absolute 
power  of  the  Clericals.  Reign  of  terror,  1866-68.  Harrison, 
694,  695. 

j.  Insurrection  in  1868.  Despotism  of  Isabella  and  rule  of 
bigotry.  Mutter,  406.  Lodge,  733.  Isabella  obliged  to 
escape  to  France.  Cortes  of  1869,  a  new  constitution. 
Serrano's  Regency,  1868-70.  Aims  of  Republicans.  Harri- 
son, 695-697.  Prim  and  Castelar.  Llano,  106-108.  Field, 
ch.  ix.  First  Protestant  Spanish  religious  service,  Madrid, 
March  28,  1869. 

(1)   Search  for  a  king.     Prince  of  Hohenzollern  offered  the 
throne.     The  Franco-Prussian  war. 

4.  Amadeo,  the  second  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy,  elected 
king,  1870-73.     Mutter,  478.     Lodge,  738.     Harrison,  699. 

"Amadeo's  government,  under  which  Serrano  was  the  first  minister-president,  was  one 
continued  scramble  for  office  on  the  part  of  the  regular  monarchists,  while  the  Carlists  and 
Republicans  busied  themselves  in  organizing  insurrections  in  the  north  and  south  respect- 
ively. Serrano  and  Topete,  Sagastaand  Zorrilla,  gained  and  lost  office  with  confusing  rap- 
idity. The  king  held  fast  to  the  constitution  of  1869,  but  was  bitterly  hated  by  the  powerful 
nobles  and  the  clergy  as  a  stranger,  and  the  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel."    Muller,  478. 

Finally  forced  to  abdicate. 

5.  Republic,  1873-75.     Numerous  civil  wars. 

"  The  programme  of  the  new  rulers  was:  a  federative  republic  for  Spain,  with  self-gov- 
ernment of  the  individual  states,  after  the  pattern  of  Switzerland  and  the  United  States; 
no  centralization ;  abolition  of  the  standing  army ;  absolute  separation  of  the  Church  and 
State;  proclamation  of  the  rights  of  the  individual  on  the  basis  of  a  democratic  constitu- 
tion and  under  the  authority  of  the  law."     Muller,  479. 


106 

Four  contesting  parties, —  Moderate  Republicans,  Radical  Republi- 
cans, Communists,  Legitimists. 

a.  Presidents,  Pi  y  Margall,  Salmeron,  1873.  Castelar,  1873, 
resigned  after  a  military  coup  d'etat,  1874.    Muller,  479,  480. 

b.  Serrano,  military  dictator,  1874.     Muller,  480. 

6.  Alphonso  XII,  son  of  Queen  Isabella,  1875-85.  Continued 
revolts  of  the  Carlists.  Final  suppression,  1876.  Muller,  599-601. 
New  Liberal  Constitution  (present  one),  1876. 

a.  Conservative  Ministry  of  Canovas,  1874-81.  Muller,  600, 
601.     Llano,  112-114. 

b.  Formation  of  Liberal  party  of  the  Dynastic  Left  by  Serrano 
and  Sagasta,  1881.     Z/arco,  114-120. 

7.  Alphonso  XIII,  1886.  Regency  of  the  Queen.  Field,  ch.  vii. 
Sagasta's  administration.  Reforms.  Colonial  Minister  authorized  to 
abolish  slavery,  July  30,  1886. 

8.  Spanish  Political  Parties. 

(1)  Moderate  Liberals  (Sagasta,  Moret). 

(2)  Democrats  (Martos). 

(3)  Centralists. 

(4)  Dissidents  (Marquis  de  la  Vega  de   }■  Ministerialists. 
Armijo). 

(5)  Pacific    Republicans,  or    Possibilists 
(Salmeron,  Castelar). 

(6)  Conservatives  (Canovas  del  Castillo).  \ 

(7)  Liberal  Reformers  (Robledo,  Dominguez).     >        . 

(8)  Intransigentes,  Republicans  (Zorrilla).  ) 

(9)  Autonomists,  Federalist  Republicans,  Carlists. 

9.  Government,  and  Constitution  of  1876.      Webster,  162-169. 

a.  Monarchy,  controlled  by  a  constitution.  Responsible  minis- 
ters. 

b.  The  Legislative  power  is  the  Cortes,  composed  of  a  Senate 
and  Congress  which  are  equal  in  authority.  Senate  com- 
posed of  hereditary,  official,  and  elected  members. 

c.  Local  institutions.     The  Republic  of  Andorra. 

10.  Colonies.     The  Cuban  Question. 

a.  Relations  with  Morocco. 

b.  Gibraltar. 

11.  Condition  of  Education  and  Religion.  Webster,  ch.  vii.  Field, 
ch.  xvii. 

12.  Financial  policy.  The  Tariff  Question,  Webster,  174-180, 
231-235. 


107 


LECTURE    XXIII, 


SPAIMSII  AMERICA; 

OR,  THE  REVOLTED  COLONIES  OF  SPAIN. 

References:  William  Eleroy  Curtis:  The  Capitals  of  Spanish 
America.  Lalor :  Cyclopcedia  of  Political  Science,  Political 
Economy,  and  United  States  History.  D.  A.  Wells :  A  Study 
of  Mexico.  Florence  C.  Baylor :  Hidalgo,  the  Washington  of 
Mexico  ;  New  Princeton  Review,  1888.  C.  B.  Heller :  Reisen 
in  Mexiko,  in  den  Jahren  1845-48.  J.  F.  Elton:  With  the 
French  in  Mexico.  Antonio  Garcia  Cabas :  The  Republic  of 
Mexico  in  1876  (translated  by  G.  E.  Henderson).  Edouard 
Seve:  Le  Chili  Tel  Qu'il  Est.  K.  B.  Murray:  Commercial 
Geography,  pp.  150-163.  H.  W.  Bates:  Central  and  South 
America  (Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel). 
Laurence  Oliphant:  Patriots  and  Filibusters,  pp.  170—242. 
O.  W.  Doubleday :  Reminiscences  of  the  Filibuster  War  in  Nic- 
aragua.     Geo.  F.  Tucker:   The  Monroe  Doctrine, 

A.  Mexico. 

Area,  742,000  sq.  mi. ;  or  one  fourth  of  the  United  States,  excluding 
Alaska;  popul.,  over  10  m. 

1.  Colonial  period.     Authentic  history  dates  from  1521.      Until 
1821,  a  province  of  Spain. 

"  During  these  three  centuries  the  attitude  of  the  masses  was  one  rather  of  sullen  sub- 
mission than  of  active  resistance  to  grinding  oppression." 

Valued  by  Spain  simply  on  account  of  its  metals.  Country  worked 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Spanish  crown.  System  of  repartimentos,  or 
distribution  of  the  aborigines  on  the  plantations  and  in  the  mines. 
Wells :  Study  of  Mexico,  ch.  3. 

2.  Revolt  in  1810  under  Hidalgo.      Wells,  67.     "  Liberator,"  Itur- 
bide.      Curtis,  9-13.     Independence  declared  in  1821. 

3.  Mexico  as  an  independent  nation,  1821— • 


108 


a.  Revolutionary  spirit  throughout  the  whole  period.  An- 
archy.    Dictatorships. 

"Since  the  establishment  of  her  independence  in  1821,  Mexico, 
down  to  the  year  1844, —  a  period  of  sixty-three  years, —  has  had  fifty- 
five  presidents,  two  emperors,  and  one  regency,  and,  with  some  three 
or  four  exceptions,  there  was  a  violent  change  of  the  government 
with  every  new  administration."      Wells,  69. 

b.  Constitution  adopted  in  1824,  modelled  after  that  of  the 
United  States.  19  states  and  5  territories.  Gen.  Santa 
Anna,  1824-57.     Revolt  of  Texas,  1835-36. 

c.  War  with  United  States  in  1846,  by  which  Mexico  lost 
nearly  one  half  her  territory. 

d.  Reforms  introduced  to  correct  prevailing  evils.  Amended 
constitution,  and  "War  of  Reform"  for  three  years,  1857- 
60.  Triumph  of  Liberal  Party  under  Benito  Juarez. 
Financial  embarrassment. 

e.  1861,  suspension  of  specie  payments.  Obligations  largely 
held  in  Europe.  Interference  of  France,  England,  and 
Spain.  Napoleon's  ambition  to  obtain  power.  England 
and  Spain  withdrew.  In  1863,  the  French  army  entered 
Mexico,  and  established  an  hereditary  monarchy.  Arch- 
duke Maximilian  of  Austria  made  emperor. 

f.  Demand  of  the  United  States,  upon  the  close  of  the  civil 
war,  that  the  French  troops  withdraw  from  Mexico.  Monroe 
doctrine.  Compliance,  and  fall  of  Maximilian.  In  1867, 
the  Emperor  captured  and  shot. 

g.  Presidency  of  Juarez  (died  1872).  Confiscation  of  church 
property.  Banishment  of  religious  orders  (Jesuits)  ;  civil 
marriage  obligatory.  Supremacy  of  Liberals  since  1867. 
Juarez,  1867-72.  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  1872-76.  Porfirio 
Diaz,  1876-80.  Manuel  Gonzalez,  1880-84.  Porfirio  Diaz, 
1884-88,  1888-.      Curtis,  26-32. 

4.  Political  Parties.     Liberals  and  Clericals. 

a.  The  Indian  race.       Cubas,  61-64.      Bates,  26-28,  84,  85. 
Wells,  ch.  v. 

5.  Government  of  Mexico.  A  republic  of  27  states,  1  territory,  and 
1  Federal  District.     Similar  to  that  of  the  United  States. 

6.  Indebtedness  and  financial  distress.  Railway  connection  with 
the  United  States.  Influence  of  the  United  States  and  of  European 
nations.      Wells,  chs.  x  and  xi. 


109 


7.  Ship  Railway  scheme.  Across  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  in 
southern  Mexico.     Captain  EacTs. 

B.  Central  America. 

1.  Composed  of  five  republics:  Costa  Rica,  23,200  sq.  mi. ;  popul., 
203,780.  Guatemala,  46,800  &q.  mi. ;  popul.,  1,400,000.  Honduras, 
46,400  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  460,000.  Nicaragua,  49,500  sq.  mi. ;  popul., 
275,815.  Salvador,  7225  sq.  mi.;  popul.,  651,130.  Total  popul., 
about  3  m. 

2.  Acquired  their  independence  in  the  first  part  of  this  century, 
Salvador  and  Guatemala  taking  the  lead  in  1821,  and  endeavor- 
ing to  found  the  Federal  Republic  of  Central  America.  Frequent 
attempts  to  unite  them  under  one  government  as  a  confederation  ;  but, 
with  exception  of  a  short  period,  unsuccessful. 

3.  Clericals  vs.  Liberals.  Morazan,  Carera,  1840-70.  Curtis,  79, 
80,  135-137. 

a.  Jose  Rufino  Barrios,  President  of  Guatemala,  1873-85. 

(1)  Overthrow  of  the  Clericals. 

(2)  Compulsory  Education. 

(3)  Development  of  trade. 

(4)  Encouragement  of  immigration. 

(5)  A  Central  American  Union.        Curtis,  75-78,  81-88, 
103-113. 

4.  Relations  of  United  States  and  England  to  Nicaragua,  1848-60. 

a.  Walker,  the  filibuster,  1854-57.  Oliphaut,  195-210. 
Doubleday,  ch.  xi. 

b.  Nicaragua  Canal  project.  Scheme  revived  in  1879.  Treaty 
with  the  United  States  proposed  (1884),  by  which  the 
United  States  was  to  be  empowered  to  build  a  canal.  Eng- 
lish objections  based  upon  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  of  1850. 
Activity  of  Nicaragua  Canal  Co.  (U.  S.),  1888-89.  Tucker, 
ch.  v. 

5.  Indian  supremacy  in  San  Salvador.  Bates,  120.  Curtis,  176— 
178,  187. 

6.  Costa  Rica,  "Manana."  Tomas  Guardia,  1872.  Curtis,  204- 
212,  219-223. 

C.  Northeastern  South  America. 

Colombia  :  area,  504,773  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  about  4  m.  Venezuela  : 
area,  632,695  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  over  2  m.  Ecuador  :  area,  248,370 
sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  over  1  m. 


110 


1.  Revolts  from  Spain  began,  1810.  Simon  Bolivar,  a  Venezuelan. 
Curtis,  266,  269. 

a.  The  Monroe  Doctrine,  Dec.  2,  1823. 

2.  Federal  form  of  government  in  Colombia.  Triumph  of  Cen- 
tralization in  1886-87.      Curtis,  255,  256. 

3.  Panama  Canal  project.  In  1878,  government  of  United  States 
of  Colombia  granted  concession  to  a  company  to  build  a  canal  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  De  Les- 
seps  interested.     Financial  failure,  1888-89. 

4.  Overthrow  of  clerical  domination  in  Venezuela,  1874.  Guzman 
Blanco.      Curtis,  269,  270,  275,  286-291. 

5.  P^cuador,  dissociated  since  1831  from  Colombia  and  Venezuela. 
Political  anarchy  since  1874.  "  It  is  the  only  country  in  America  in 
which  the  Romish  church  survives  as  the  Spaniards  left  it."  No 
railroads,  no  coaches,  no  wagon  roads,  no  .secular  schools,  one  news- 
paper, one  telegraph  line.      Curtis,  306-308,  317-319,  333-337,  341. 

D.    The  Western  South  American  Republics. 

Peru  :  area,  about  500,000  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  about  3  m.  Bolivia  : 
area,  about  800,000  sq.  mi.  ;  popul.,  about  2^  m.  Chili :  area,  about 
293,970  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  about  2^  m. 

1.  Peru  declared  independence,  1821,  won  it  (San  Martin,  Coch- 
rane), 1824. 

2.  Overthrow  of  clerical  supremacy,  1869-76.      Curtis,  361. 

3.  Defeat  and  ruin  of  Peru  in  the  ''saltpetre  war,"  by  Chili  against 
Peru  and  Bolivia,  1879-83.  Futile  interference  of  the  United  States 
(Sec.  Blaine),  1882.  Cession  to  Chili  of  southern  provinces,  rich  in 
guano,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  silver.  Lalor,  III,  164-166.  Curtis, 
388-401,431-438. 

a.  Financial  depression;  worthless  paper  currency.  "You 
give  a  $20  bill  to  your  boot  black,  and  $250  an  hour  for  a 
hack.  It  costs  about  $600  a  day  for  board  at  the  hotel, 
and  $50  for  a  bunch  of  cigarettes."      Curtis,  365. 

b.  Revival  of  clerical  influence.      Curtis,  493. 

4.  Henry  Meiggs.  Present  condition  of  the  Oroya  Railway  and 
the  silver  mines.      Curtis,  401-409,  419. 

5.  Lack  of  organization  in  Bolivia.  Succession  of  military  dicta- 
torships.    Loss  of  sea  coast  to  Chili,  1879.    Priestly  supremacy.    Bo- 


Ill 


livia  and  Ecuador  are  the  only  Spanish  American  nations  now  under 
political  control  of  the  priesthood.      Curtis,  442-451,  493. 

a.  Relations  with  the  Argentine  Republic.      Curtis,  512. 

6.  Chilian  independence  declared,  1810  ;  war,  1810-18.  An  aggres- 
sive, united  nation.  "  There  has  not  been  a  successful  revolution  in 
Chili  since  1839."      Curtis,  475. 

a.  Acquisition  of  guano  and  nitrate  districts  by  war  from 
Bolivia  and  Peru,  1879-83,  and  of  jurisdiction  over  Straits 
of  Magellan  by  treaty  with  the  Argentine  Republic,  1881. 
Curtis,  472-476. 

b.  Hostility  towards  the  United  States.      Curtis,  455. 

7.  The  Culturkampf  in  Chili.      Curtis,  493-496. 

C.    The  Southeastern  Republics. 

The  Argentine  Confederation:  area,  1,125,086  sq.  mi. ;  popul., 
3 \  m.  Paraguay:  area,  91,970  sq.  mi.;  popul.,  £  m.  Uruguay: 
area,  72,150  sq.  mi. ;  popul.,  over  \  m. 

1.  War  for  independence  in  the  La  Plata  region,  1810-19.  Con- 
tinued importance  of  the  State  of  La  Plata  and  its  capital  city,  Bue- 
nos Ay  res.  Blancos  and  Colorados.  The  Gauchos.  Lalor,  1,  114. 
Curtis,  570-572.     Bates,  392-396. 

a.  Dictatorship  of  Rosas,  1829-52.      Curtis,  572-574. 

b.  Conflicts  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  other  parts  of  the  con- 
federacy. Constitution  of  1853  ;  revised,  1860.  Enormous 
progress  since  1860. 

(1)  Immigration  and  trade.      Curtis,  569,  581-590. 

(2)  Relations  with  Chili.      Curtis,  528,  529. 

(3)  Relations  with  the  United  States.      Curtis,  550-559. 

2.  Paraguay.  Ruled  by  Jesuits,  under  suzerainty  of  Spain,  161 1 — 
1767.  Revolt  from  Spain,  1811.  Dictatorship  of  Francia,  1811- 
40  ;  policy  of  isolation.     Lalor,  III,  49. 

a.  Lopez  I  and  II,  1842-70 ;  brutal  tyranny.  Ruinous  war 
with  Brazil,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  the  Colorado 
party  of  Uruguay,  1864-70.      Curtis,  624-627. 

3.  Uruguay  (Banda  Oriental).  After  revolt  from  Spain  controlled 
by  Brazil  until  1825  ;  1830-72,  almost  continual  revolution  and  civil 
war. 

a.  Trade  and  commerce.      Curtis,  599-601. 

b.  Conflict  with  clerical  influence.      Curtis,  612-614. 


112 


LECTURE    XXIV. 


THE  AFRICAN  CONTINENT. 

COLONIZATION  AND  CUEBENTS  OF  EMIGRATION. 

References  :  Keith  Johnston :  Africa,  Stanford's  Compendium  of 
Geography  and  Travel).  C.  P.  Lucas:  Historical  Geography 
of  the  British  Colonies.  H.  M.  Stanley:  The  Congo  and  the 
Founding  of  its  Free  State.  Daniel  De  Leon :  The  Confer- 
ence at  Berlin  on  the  West  African  Question,  Political  Science 
Quarterly,  I,  103-139.  E.  De  Amicis :  Morocco,  its  People, 
and  Places.  E.  W.  Blyden :  Christianity,  Islam,  and  the 
Negro  Race.  A.  B.  Wylde:  '83  to  '87  in  the  Soudan.  John 
Eliot  Bowen :  The  Conflict  of  East  and  West  in  Egypt,  Polit- 
ical Science  Quarterly,  I,  295-335,  449-490,  636-677,  with 
bibliography,  pp.  676,  677.  0.  Crawfurd:  Slavery  in  East 
Central  Africa,  Nineteenth  Century,  Sept.,  1888.  H.  H.John- 
ston: British  East  Africa,  Fortnightly  Review,  Oct.,  1888. 
England,  Germany  and  the  Slave  Trade,  Spectator,  Nov.  3, 
1888.  W.  M.  Torrens:  The  East  African  Slave  Trade,  Fort- 
nightly Review,  vol.  43,  691.  Joseph  Thomson  :  Mohammedan- 
ism in  Central  Africa,  Contemporary  Review,  Dec.,  1886,  p.  876. 
R.  Bosworth  Smith:  Mohammedanism  in  Africa,  Nineteenth 
Century,  vol.  22,  791.  Grant  Allen:  A  Glance  at  North 
Africa;  Canon  Mac  Coll:  Islam  and  Civilization,  Contempo- 
rary Review,  April,  1888,  pp.  526-559. 

Area,  nearly  12  m.  sq.  mi.  ;   popul.,  estimated  from  60  m.  to  200  m. 

A.  The  Division  of  a  Continent. 

1.  Share  of  the  Turkish  Sultan. 

a.  Tripoli  (including  Barca  and  Fezzan)  ;  Turkish  authority 
reasserted,  1835;  Turkish  garrison  strengthened  since  French 
occupation  of  Tunis  ;  power  of  politico-religious  frater- 
nities;   the  Senoosiya,  1830- ;  claims  of  France  and  Italy 


113 


b.  Egypt  and  the  Soudan.       1805-49,  destruction  of  feudal 
regime  of  the  Mamelukes ;  rule  of  the  Albanian,  Mehemet 
AH,  whose  great  grandson,  Tewfik,  is  now  Khedive.     Con- 
quest of  the  Soudan,  1870-73  ;  its  revolt  (Al  Mahdi)  1881- ; 
Political  Science  Quarterly,  I,  626-645.     Gordon  at  Khar- 
toum,   1884-85.      Political   Science    Quarterly,  653-659. 
Emin   Pasha  (Dr.  Schnitzler),  at  Wadelai,  on  Lake  Albert 
Nvanza.     Stanley's  expeditions,  1887-89. 
(1)  Interferences  of    England;  to  drive   out  the  French, 
1801  ;  to  check   Mehemet  Ali,   1840;  to  purchase   the 
Khedive's  Suez  Canal  shares  (nearly  half  the  whole), 1875. 
Bright,  iv,  516,  517.    To  manage  (together  with  France) 
Egyptian  finances,  1875-76.    Political  Science  Quarterly, 
I,  314-334.    To  suppress  Arabi  Pasha's   rebellion,  1882, 
(end  of  the  dual  control).     Political  Science  Quarterly, 
I,   474-484,  487.     To   check  the  Mahdists  (Khartoum, 
Suakim),  1884-.     u  She  has  shrunk  all  along  from  the 
final  step  of  annexation,  but  she  remains  the  virtual  suze- 
rain of  Egypt."    Political  Science  Quarterly,  I,  674-676. 
For  unfavorable  view  of  England's  present  policy  in  the 
Soudan,  see  Wylde,  II,  ch.  viii. 

2.  Share  of  England.  (Lecture  V.)  Lucas,  111.  Imperial  British 
East  African  Co.  in  Zanzibar.  H.  H.  Johnston.  Egypt  (ante,  §  1, 
and  Lecture  XIV). 

3.  Share  of  Italy.  Massowah  given  up  by  Egypt,  1885-86;  trou- 
bles with  Abyssinia.     (Lecture  XIX.)      Wylde,  I,  340-342. 

4.  Share  of  France.  Algiers  and  Tunis,  the  Senegal  valley  and 
coast,  1856-88  ;  French  Congo  (De  Brazza),  and  (assumed)  protec- 
torate of  Madagascar.  Lebon  :  France  As  It  Is,  895-300,  303-307. 
(Lecture  XVIII.) 

5.  Share  of  Spain.  The  future  of  Morocco  ;  its  people.  De  Amicis, 
280-284.  Area,  about  219,000  sq.  mi.;  popul.,  estimated  from 
2£  m.  to  8  m.  Grant  Allen,  533-536.  Powers  of  foreign  consuls  at 
Tangiers. 

6.  Share  of  Portugal.  Lower  Guinea  and  Mozambique ;  undevel- 
oped. 

7.  Share  of  Germany.  The  Kameroons,  Damaraland,  and,  on  the 
coast  of  Zanzibar,  concessions  to  the  German  East  African  Company. 

(1)  German  East  African  Company  and  the  Arabian  slave 
traders,  1888-89. 


114 

8.  Independent  states. 

a.  Morocco,  see  ante,  §  5. 

b.  Liberia,  founded  1822,  by  American  Colonization  Society. 
Republic  on  model  of  United  States.  E.  W.  Blyden,  221- 
22%*228-253,-  392-432. 

c.  Congo  Free  State.  The  African  International  Association, 
1877.  Stanley's  Explorations,  1879-84.  Stanley,  I,  cbs. 
ii  and  iv. 

(1)  International  Congo  Conference,  Berlin,  Feb.,  1885. 
The  state  defined,  declared  neutral  and  free  to  trade  of  all 
nations  ;  controls  valley  and  mouth  of  Congo.  Area,  over 
1  m.  sq.  mi.  ;  popul.,  27  m.      Stanley,  II,  ch.  xxxviii. 

d.  The  Dutch  Republics.     (Lecture  V.) 

e.  Madagascar.     {Ante,  §  4,  Lecture  XVIII.) 

f.  Zanzibar,  subject  to  Muscat,  1784-1870;  since  1870  inde- 
pendent. Limits  determined,  1886-87,  by  Joint  Commis- 
sion (Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  France). 

g.  Abyssinia  (Habesh,  Ethiopia).  Estimated  area,  JH50,000 
sq.  m. ;  popul.,  3  m.  Group  of  semi-independeut  states. 
Christianized  about  329. 

(1)  Theodore,  1855-68,  takes  title  of  Negoosa  Negust,  that 
is,  King  of  Kings.  English  influence  and  missionaries. 
War  with  England,  1867-68.     Bright,  iv,  436-438. 

(2)  King  John  II,  1872- ;  "His  Majesty  Johannis,  made 
by  the  Almighty  King  of  Sion  Negoosa  Negust  of  Ethi- 
opia and  its  dependencies."      Ilewett's  Treaty. 

(a)  Repel's  Egyptian  invasion,  1875-77.  Wylde,  I,  312- 
329. 

{b)  Treaties  of  alliance  with  Egypt  and  England  against 
the  Mahdists,  and  against  the  slave  trade  (Ilewett's 
Treaty),  1884.      Wylde,  II,  38-65,  304-309. 

(3)  The  people.      Wylde,  I,  cbs.  x-xv. 

h.  Central  African  States.  In  Guinea,  Ashantee  (wars  with 
England,  1864,  1873.  Bright,  iv,  372,  497-499),  and  Da- 
homey. In  Eastern  Africa,  Uganda,  the  Gallas,  and  Som- 
alis.  In  Southern  Africa,  Hottentots,  apd  Kaffirs.  In 
Central  Africa,  Mandingoes,  Bornous,  Foulahs,  and  the 
tribes  of  the  Eastern  Soudan.     Blyden,  312,  350,  356. 

"  We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  there  were  many  races  hi  Africa  —  that  the  typ- 
ical Negro  with  prognathous  jaw  and  woolly  hair,  who  has  been  so  eagerly  sought  as  a 
slave  in  all  ages,  is  quite  as  distinct  from  the  Kaffir,  and  from  many  of  the  races  described 
by  travellers  in  the  interior,  as  from  the  diminutive  Bushman,  the  feeble  remnant  of  an 
older  race  now  extinct."    Blyden,  317. 


115 

B.  The  Slave  Trade  and  Mohammedanism. 

1.  The  extent  of  Islam  in  Africa.  Its  civilizing ;npwers..  Varieties. 
The  Mahdis.  See  especially,  Bosivorth  Smith,  795,  and  Blyden,  199- 
216,  350-378. 

"  Whatever  may  be  the  case  in  Arabia,  there  is  an  irrepressible-activity  —  intellectual, 
commercial,  political,  and  religious  —  among  the  adherents  of  the  creed  in  Nigritia." 
Blyilen,  377. 

2.  The  competition  of  Islam  and  Christianity.  For  faulty  methods 
of  the  latter,  see  Thomson  ;  but  for  general  presentation  of  the  subject, 
see  Blyden,  1-53,  277-297. 

3.  The  Trans-Arabian  slave-traffic.  Importance  of  the  outlets  at 
Suakim,  Masbowah,  and  Zanzibar.      Spectator,  Nov.  3,  1888. 

a.  Reasons  for  Egyptian   failure  to  control  the  Soudan  and 
suppress  the  slave-trade.      Wylde,  II,  65-68. 

b.  Complicity  of  Turkey  and  responsibility  of  England.    Wylde, 
II,  242-266. 

4.  The  Trans-Sahara  slave  traffic.  Crusade  of  Cardinal  Lavigerie 
of  Algiers,  1888. 

C.  Colonial  Empires  op  Today,  and  the  Routes  op  Trade. 

1.  England,  France,  Holland,  Portugal,  Germany,  Spain,  Denmark, 
and  Italy.     (Map  exercise).     Lucas,  chs.  vi,  vii,  with  maps. 

2.  The  world's  commerce.  K  B.  Murray :  Commercial  Geography, 
pp.  15-19;  especially  89-113.  John  Teats:  Recent  and  Existing 
Commerce,  part  iv. 

D.  Currents  op  Emigration. 

1.  Most  important  inter-continental  emigration  is  from  Germany, 
Scandinavia,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  China  to  the  United  States, 
Argentine  Republic,  Australia,  Canada,  South  Africa,  Brazil,  Uru- 
guay, and  the  Pacific  Hands. 

For  study  of  emigration  from  nearly  all  European  countries,  see 
United  States  Consular  Reports,  vol.  xxii,  1887,  No.  76.  For  Den- 
mark, Consular  Reports,  1884,  pp.  672-675.  Report  of  German 
Imperial  Emigrant  Commissioner,  Consular  Reports,  vol.  xxvi,  1888, 
pp.  233-239.  See  also  Richmond  Smith :  The  Control  of  Immigration, 
Political  Science  Quarterly,  vol.  iii ;  also  same  authority  on  The  Influ- 
ence of  Immigration  on  the  United  States  of  America,  Bulletin  de 
V Institut  International  de  Statistique,  tome  iii,  2eme  livre,  1888. 

Total  immigration  into  the  United  States,  1820-87,  about  14  m. 
Of  these  about  6  m.  were  from  the  British  Hands.  Largest  number 
in  one  year,  788,992  in  1882.     Total  immigration  into  the  United 


116 


States  from  China,  1855-87,  274,458,  of  whom  probably  one  half 
have  returned  to  China.  For  Chinese  in  Australia,  see  Sir  John  Pope 
Hennessey:  The  Chinese  in  Australia,  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  23, 
p.  617. 

2.  Most  important  trans-continental  emigration  is  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  towards  the  West,  and  into  the  United  States  from 
all  parts  of  British  America ;  and,  in  Russia,  to  the  East  and  South 
(Siberia  and  the  coasts  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas).  Walker  and 
Gannett 's  Report  on  the  Progress  of  the  Nation,  in  Rand's  Selections 
Illustrating  Economic  History,  pp.  286-307.  See  also  Tenth  United 
States  Census,  vol.  i. 


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